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THE 



GROCERS' MANUAL, 



CONTAINING 



THE NATUItAL HISTORY AND PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE 
OF ALL GROCERS' GOODS. 



ALSO, 



THEIR ADULTERATIONS, 

AND HOW TO DETECT THEM; 

RATES OF TARE, 

AS ALLOWED BY CUSTOM AND LAW; 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, MONEYS, ETC. 
THE WHOLE 

BEING DESIGNED AS A GUIDE TO AID IN THE 
PURCHASING OF GOODS. 

*^ "' 






)^^ > / BY P. H. FELKER. 



CLAREMONT, N. H., 
PRINTED BY THE CLAKEMONT MANUFACTURING COMPANT. 

1878. 






X 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 

P. II. FEI.KER, 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



The Clakeliont Manlpacttteing Compakt, 

CLAREMONT, N. H., 
.. - -'Bookmakers and Stereotypeks. 



PREFACE. 

The preparation of this manual was suggested to me 
by my own need of one while in the trade. Great care 
has been taken in the description of the various articles, 
to have the information up to date. Technical terms 
have been avoided as much as possible in a book design- 
ed for popular use. The sharp competition in trade and 
the many adulterated goods now manufactured, render 
some such guide as this manual a neces^y t!j"'all intel- 
ligent tradesmen. 

P. H. FELKER. 

Grand Rapids, Michigan, July, 1878. 



« 



THE 

GROCERS' MANUAL 



Adulteration, The adulterating of goods of all kinds 
is extensively carried on, and so general has become the 
practice that it is almost impossible to obtain pure manu- 
factured goods. Even the articles used for adulterating 
purposes are themselves adulterated, and the evil has no 
limit. Just where to lay the blame for this evil is hard 
to determine. The great competition in trade has led 
manufacturers to fall in prices, and to do this they must 
sell impure materials. In England and other European 
countries, severe laws are in force against adulterating. 
Many of the states of the Union have similar laws but 
they are generally a dead letter. The matter is an im- 
portant one and should be under control of the oflScers 
of the public health. We give some of the most impor- 
tant articles of the grocers' goods which are adulterated : 

1. Coffee. This is adulterated largely with chicory, 
this latter being itself adulterated with roasted corn, 
beans, lupine seeds, peas, pulse, horse-chestnuts, spent 
coffee, and various roots, such as carrots, parsnips, man- 
gel-wurzel, dandelion, etc. It is said that spent tan-bark 
and dried bullock's liver have been employed for the same 



6 ADULTERATION. 

purpose. The test for these adulterations is the differ- 
ent appearance of the tissues when examined under the 
microscope ; also the infusion of chicory does not become 
discolored when treated with iodine, as it contains no 
starch. Ground coffee is of such a gi^easy nature from 
the presence of oil that when thrown on water it will float, 
while the adulterating materials will readih' sink, and rap- 
idl}' discolor the water, giving it a brown appearance, 
while pure coffee does not readily discolor the water. A 
rough test may thus be made of the amount of impuri- 
ties in coffee ; by stii'ring the ingTedients in water the cof- 
fee will rise to the top and the amount can thus be deter- 
mined ; or it may be more accurately determined by 
chemical anah^sis. There is a machine patented in Eng- 
land for making spurious berries out of common vege- 
table substances, and thus the green coffee is itself arlul- 
terated. 

2. Tea. This is extensivel}^ adulterated in China by 
means of exhausted tea leaves, and leaves of other trees, 
to the amount of milhons of pounds annually. Mineral 
matters are also used for coloring or facing teas ; China 
clay, fine sand, iron fihngs, etc., are used to the extent 
of 20 to 40 per cent. The tests for these adulterations 
are ver}^ simple. The common test is by infusion ; this 
is poured off the leaves and examined for color, taste and 
odor, all of which are characteristic. The leaves are also 
examined for size, color and for special botanical pecul- 
iarities. Impurities, hke sand, ii'on fihngs and dirt, may 
be seen among the leaves or at the bottom of the cup. 
The leaves, too, betray by their coarseness and botanical 
character, the nature and quaht}^ of the tea ; for although 



ADULTERATION. 7 

the leaves of genuine tea differ much in form and size, 
yet their venation and general structure are very distinct- 
ive. The 3^oung leaves are narrow, downy and convo- 
luted ; those next in size and age have their edges deli- 
cately serrated, and the veins are scarcely perceptible ; 
in leaves of large size the venation is well marked, there 
being a series of loops along each side of the leaf extend- 
ing from the midrib to the edge. Chemical examination 
of the ash will also determine the mineral impurities ; 
iron fihngs may be discovered by the use of the magnet. 

3. Bread. The chief adulterations of bread are with 
alum or sulphate of copper for the purpose of giving so- 
lidity to the gluten of damaged or inferior flour ; or with 
chalk or carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of sour 
flour ; or with boiled rice or potatoes to enable the bread 
to carry more water, and thus to produce a larger num- 
ber of loaves. 

4. Flour and other farinaceous matters are adulter- 
ated with plaster, potato starch, etc. The granules of 
the different kinds of starch can be determined by the 
use of the microscope. 

5. Butter and Lard may be adulterated by mixing 
with inferior fats, or by the addition of water, salt and 
starch. If impurities are added they may be detected by 
melting in a glass and allowing to stand ; the fat will float 
while the impurities will settle. Foreign fats in butter 
are recognized by the granular look of the butter, by its 
gritty feel, by its taste, and by its odor when warmed. 

6. Mustard is so acrid and so powerful in its flavor 
that it is commonly diluted with flour or other farinaceous 
matter, turmeric being added to improve its appearance. 



8 ADULTERATION. Jt 

The genuine material contains no starch, and the addition 
of starchy matter may be detected by the iodine test. 

7. Spices, as pe^^per, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, cay- 
enne, etc., are all subjects of large adulterations, which 
can readily be detennined by the microscope. In some 
cases of so called gTOund i^epper the specimen examined 
consisted of gj^Dsum, buckwheat husks, mustard husks 
and starch, and no pepper. Ginger is adulterated with 
sago meal, gTound rice and tunneric. In cayenne we 
have feiTuginous earths, brick dust, and even yemulion 
and red lead. 

Exhausted spices are also re-ground and used to adul- 
terate. 

Among the adulterations which are practiced for the 
purpose of impro^iiig the appearance of the article, and 
giying it a false strength, are the following : the ad- 
dition of alum and salts of copper to bread ; the facing 
of black tea with black lead, and of green with a mix- 
tm-e of indigo or Prussian blue, T^ith tm'meric and China 
clay ; the treatment of pickles and preserved fruits 
with a salt of copper which has the property of mordant- 
ing and brightening the gTcen coloring matter of vege- 
tables. Ferrufjinous earths are added to sauces, ancho- 
vies, potted meats and the preparations of cocoa. Min- 
eral pigments, such as yellow and orange chi'omate of 
lead, green arsenite of copper, etc., are frequently used 
in coloring confectioneiy, and have produced serious ef- 
fects in those eating it. Sulphmic acid is added to vin- 
egar ; black jack or biu'nt sugar to coffee and chicory, etc. 

Of minor adulterations we have flour and teiTa alba 
added to baking powders ; starch and flom- to chocolate ; 



ALCOHOL — ALLSPICE. 9 

gum arable added to licorice ; common plaster to cream 
tartar, as high as 80 per cent. ; starch and farinaceous 
matters to indigo ; flour to powdered sugar ; syrups made 
from corn starch and sulphuric acid ; tapioca made from 
potatoes ; foreign leaves and paper added to tobacco ; 
liquors of all kinds artificially manufactured ; maple su- 
gar made from muscovado ; nutmegs boiled and recoated ; 
artificial honey and jellies ; and indeed the catalogue em- 
braces about all manufactured goods. 

Alcohol. This substance has long been known as al- 
cohol or spirits of wine. It is obtained as a result of the 
fermentation of sugar, and is extracted by distillation 
from spirituous hquors, such as wine and brandy. Alcohol 
is the essential element in all intoxicating drinks. Pure 
or absolute alcohol is a colorless fluid, with a pungent 
and agreeable taste and a fragrant odor. It is very com- 
bustible and burns with a pale blue flame, without smoke. 
The action of alcohol on the system is that of a powerful 
and dangerous stimulant. Its composition is CaHgO. 

Alden Dried Fruit, A name applied to fruit dried 
by what is known as the Alden Process of Evaporation. 
This process consists in extracting the water from the 
fruit, without impairing its flavor or freshness. The fruit 
is dried in a chamber constructed for this special pur- 
pose, and the water extracted by means of hot air blasts. 
All kinds of fruits and vegetables are dried by this proc- 
ess, and are now extensively sold in our markets, bring- 
ing a much higher price than fruit dried by the old 
methods. 

Allspice, the dried fruits of Eugenia pimento ^ a native 
of the Carribee Islands, and also cultivated in the East 



10 ALMOND. 

Indies. It is a handsome tree abont thirty feet high 
and is extensive^ cultivated in Jamaica, where the trees 
are planted in rows which are called pimento walks. 
Soon after the tree has blossomed the berries become 
fit for gathering, not being allowed to ripen, as, when 
ripe they are diflGLcult to cure, and become black and 
tasteless when dried. The berries are dried by spread- 
ing on a terrace exposed to the sun for about seven daj's, 
during which time they gi'adually lose their gi-een color 
and become of a reddish brown. They have a fragi-ant odor 
which is supposed to resemble a mixture of cloves, cin- 
namon and nutmegs ; hence the name of allspice by 
which they are known. Their taste is warm, aromatic, 
pungent, and slightly astringent. The berries are used 
as a spice in cooking, and as a carminative in medicine. 
For the year ending June 30, 1875, there were consumed, 
in the United States, 1,721,683 pounds of allspice, valued 
at $83,151, exclusive of duty. 

Almond (Amygdalus.) A genus of plants of the 
natural order Rosaceae, composed of trees and shrubs, 
closely allied to the peach. The tree from which the 
common almond (A. communis) is obtained is a native 
of Barbary and grows to the height of 25 to 30 feet. 
Almonds are produced thi'oughout the whole of Southern 
Europe, S^'ria, Persia and Northern Africa, but our sup- 
ply is largely from Spain and the South of France. 
They are distinguished as bitter and sweet almonds, the 
latter being used as an article of food. There are two 
varieties of the sweet ahnond, known in commerce as 
Jordan and Valentia almonds. The former are import- 
ed from Malaga, are longer, narrower, more pointed and 



ALUM — AMMONIA . 1 1 

more highly prized than the latter, which are shipped 
from Valentia. The kernels of the sweet almond are 
used, either green or ripe, as an article in the dessert. 
They are also much used in confectionery, cooking, per- 
fumes and medicine. When young and green they are 
preserved in sugar, like green apricots. They also fur- 
nish the Almond Oil of commerce, which is used in the 
arts for the same purpose as olive oil. The bitter al- 
mond is injurious to animal life, on account of the large 
quantity of hydrocj^anic or Prussic acid which it con- 
tains. This species is but little used in domestic econo- 
my, but is sometimes employed in flavoring confection- 
ery, and should only be used with the greatest caution. 
According to the statistics of 1875, there were consumed, 
in this country, almonds to the value of $487,524. 

Alum, a double sulphate of alumina and potash. It 
has a sweet, astringent taste, and crj^stallizes in the form 
of octohedrals. Its chemical formula is K2 4 S O4 24 H2 O ; 
it contains one pkrt by weight of sulphate of potash, one 
of tersulphate of alumina, and twenty-four of water. Al- 
um is extensively manufactured, and is used in preparing 
skins, and as a mordant in calico printing. It is some- 
times used by bakers in the adulteration of bread. Am- 
monia alum, containing ammonia instead of potash, is 
now largely manufactured, on account of the cheapness 
of the ammonia sulphate. 

Ammonia, a chemical compound in the form of a 
transparent, colorless and pungent gas. Its formula is 
N H3, one atom of nitrogen and three of hydrogen. The 
name is derived from sal-ammonia, which was formerly 
obtained near the Temple of Jupiter- Ammon, in Libya, 



1 2 ANCHOVY — ANNOTTO . 

by burning camel's dung. It is now manufactured in con- 
nection with the distilhng of bituminous coal in making 
gas, and from various refuse animal matter. It combines ^ 
with acids to form salts. A solution of this gas in water ^^^ 
is used in medicine, and is known as hartshorn. Smell-"^ 
ing salts is the carbonate of ammonia. Ammonia com- 
bined with sijlphuric acid forms a white salt, the sulphate 
of ammonia. 

Anchovy, (EngrauUs encrasicolus) , a small fish of the,^^ 
herring family, from five to seven inches in length,^^d^'' 
found in the Mediterranean sea and on the Atlantic shorls^- 
of Europe. Anchovies also abound on the Atlantic and 
Pacific coast of the United States. They^are largely 
taken in the Mediterranean, and salted 4nd packed in 
small barrels for exportation. The fish are used largely 
in the manufacture of pastes and sauces, and anchovy 
paste and sauce is quite common in our markets. 

Anise-seed ; the fruit of Pimpinella anisum^ original- 
ly from Egypt and the Levant ; but now cultivated all 
over Europe. The seeds have a fragrant odor, and a 
sweet, warm, aromatic taste. They are used in medicine, 
and also to flavor liquors, and as a condiment. The seeds 
contain a volatile oil, which is obtained by distillation, 
and used as a substitute for the seeds. The star anise 
oil of commerce is the product of Tllicium anisatum^ a 
small tree of the order of Magnoliacese, a native of East- 
ern Asia. It is imported from Anam and China. In 
1875 there were imported 90,956 pounds of anise and star 
anise seed. 

Annotto, or Annatto, is a red dyeing drug produced 
from the red pulp which covers the seeds of Bixa orellana. 



M^' 



APPLE. 13 

a shrub growing wild in South America, and cultivated in 
Qie West Indies. The method of manufacture is as fol- 
lows : the pulp and seeds together are bruised in wooden 
vessels, and liot water poured on them ; they are then left 
to soak for several days, and then pressed through a close 
sieve to separate the seeds. The matter is then left to 
ferment for about one week, when the water is gently 
poured off, and the solid part is left to dry in the shade. 
When it has acquired the consistency of a solid paste, it 
is prepared for market. Besides being used in painting 
and dyeing, it is largely employed as a coloring matter in 
the manufacture of butter and cheese. In 1875 there 
were imported into this country, of annotto in various 
forms, 212,259 pounds. 

Apple. {Pyrus malus.) This most useful of all fruits 
is a native of the temperate regions of Europe and Asia. 
It is a member of the natural order Rosacese, and ^i^ws 
to a height of from fifteen to thirty feet, with spreading 
branches forming a bushy top. It is a hardy tree, slow 
of growth, and attains a great age — instances being 
known of trees over 200 years old. The blossoms are 
very fragTant, and a tree in full bloom is a very beautiful 
object. It flowers in May, and fruits from Juty to No- 
vember. The number of varieties under cultivation is 
over 200, and is rapidly increasing. According to the 
time of ripening of this fruit it may be divided into three 
classes : summer, autumn and winter apples. Among 
the best varieties of summer apples for commercial pur- 
poses are the Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Summer 
Queen and Golden Sweet. Among fall apples are Maid- 
en's Blush, Rambo, Fall Wine and Fall Pippin. Of win- 



14 APRICOT. 

ter fruit we have the Baldwin, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, 
White Pippin, Belleflower, Swaar, Peck's Pleasant, Eox- 
bury Russet, Winesap, Rhode Island Greening and Hub- 
bardston Nonesuch. Large quantities of apples are an- 
nually exported from the Northern United States to Great 
Britain. When sliced and dried the apple forms an im- 
portant article of commerce. For the year ending June 
30, 1875, there were exported from this country 759,574 
bushels of green apples, and 4,053,696 pounds of dried 
apples. The finest fruits are produced in New York and 
other states of the same latitude. The wood of the ap- 
ple tree is very fine grained, and when green weighs from 
48 to 56 lbs. per cubic foot, and when dried loses about 
one-tenth. The wood is used in the manufacture of shoe 
lasts, plane handles, cog-wheels, etc. 

The Siberian Crab {Pyrus voccata) , a native of Sibe- 
ria, i^ cultivated in Europe and in the United States. It 
is largely used in the manufacture of jeUy and preserves. 

The American Crab is Pyrus coronaria, and grows 
wild in this country. The fruit is of little value. 

The wild crab of Eiu'ope is the parent of all our cultiva- 
ted varieties of apples, which have been produced by care- 
ful selection and cultivation. At present the standard va- 
rieties are propagated by grafting, and are much superior 
to those raised from the seed, which are known as natu- 
ral fruit. 

Apricot, (Prunus armeniaca) , a small tree of the nat- 
ural order Rosacese. It is a native of Armenia, but is cul- 
tivated in both Europe and America. The fruit is most- 
ly of a yellow color, with the side exposed to the sun of 
a reddish tinge ; and in many of its quahties it closely re- 



ARGOL — ^AREOW ROOT. 15 

sembles the peach. In the East it is dried in the same 
manner as figs, and used as an article of food. It may 
be propagated by budding on the peach, pkim and wild 
cherry. With us it flowers in April and fruits in July. 

Argol, (See Cream Tartar.) 

Arrow-root, {Maranta arundinacea) is a native of 
the West Indies, from which large quantities of the pre- 
pared root are imported into the United States and Eu- 
rope. It is also cultivated in Georgia and Florida. In 
Cayenne the natives eat the root roasted for the cure of 
intermittent fevers ; bruised, it is applied to arrow 
wounds whence the origin of the Enghsh name. It is 
from the root stocks of this plant that the finest Bermuda 
or West Indian arrow-root is obtained. When a year 
old, the root- stocks are taken up and well washed, and 
afterward beaten to a pulp in wooden mortars ; it is then 
thoroughly washed in water till the fecula is removed 
from the fibre. The fibrous portion is then removed by 
hand, and the white, milky-looking fluid is strained 
through a coarse cloth, and allowed to stand till the fec- 
ula subsides. The water is again poured off and fresh 
water added ; this water is then run off and the starch, 
which has settled to the bottom, is dried in the sun on 
sheets. Prepared arrow-root is almost pure starch, but 
is very frequently adulterated with potato starch. This 
adulteration may be detected by the use of the micro- 
scope. The starch granules of the genuine arrow root 
are of an ovate-oblong, convex shape, nearly equal in 
size and with very fine concentric rings, increasing in 
size from the apex ; while the granules of the potato 
starch are very irregular in size and streaked and fur- 



16 ARTICHOKE — ASPARAGUS. 

rowed on the surface. Another test for genuine Maran- 
ta arrow-root is to mix a portion with twice its weight 
of strong muriatic acid, when it will form an opaque 
paste ; perform the same operation with potato starch 
and the result wiU be transparent and jeUy like. The 
fecula of many 'other plants is used as a substitute for ar- 
row-root or for its adulteration. Potato starch is the 
most common adulterant, and from it is manufactured 
the English arrow-root. East India arrow-root is ob- 
tained from the roots of different species of curcuma. 
Under the microscope the starch gi-ains appear united to 
each other, andsmTOunded with rings. Brazihan arrow- 
root is prepared from a species of euphorbia, (see Tap- 
ioca.) For the year 1875, 1,032.062 lbs. of arrow-root 
were consumed in the United States. 

Artichoke, {Cynar oscolymus) , a perennial herb of the 
natural order Compositsg, and nearly related to the this- 
tle. It is cultivated in the gardens as a vegetable — the 
part used being the fleshy receptacle of the flower head, 
gathered before the flower expands, and boiled or made 
into a salad. It flowers in August, and fruits in Sep- 
tember. 

The Jerusalem Artichoke, (Helianthus tuberosus), 
is a species of sunflower, and is cultivated for the fleshy 
tubers found at the root. These tubers are pickled and 
used as a condiment. They are also used in the feeding 
of stock. The plant is a native of Brazil, and flowers 
with us in August and September, and fruits in October. 

Asparagus. {Asparagus officinalis.) A species of 
plant belonging to the Lily family and largely cultivated 
in gardens as an article of food. The young plants are 



AXLE GREASE — BAKING POWDER. 17 

raised from seed and then transplanted into beds pre- 
pared in rich soil. The perennial roots send up, every 
spring, a crop of shoots which are cut just below the 
soil, when a few inches in length, and tied in bunches 
and sent to the market. 

Axle Grease, a compound for greasing the axles of 
wagons, etc. It is prepared from the pitchy remains of 
fatty acids, petroleum or lard oil. Tallow, tar, lime 
water, whiting, flaxseed, flour, Venetian red and rosin 
are the ingi'edients of one of the patent axle greases. 
Another is given as black oil, hard tallow, wood ashes, 
white hme, salt, sulphur, and black lead. It is gener- 
ally packed for market in small boxes or tin cans. 

Baking Powder, a compound of an acid and aUiali 
and used as a substitute for yeast. It is commonly made 
from cream tartar, and carbonate of soda or ammonia ; 
the phosphate of ammonia has also been employed. The 
acid and alliali in baking powders should be used in such 
proportions as to just neutralize each other. The ma- 
terials necessary to form the baking powder are generally 
mixed with flour, or some other cheap material. The 
addition of flour is of no injury, but in the cheap baking 
powder the flour largely predominates. One of the best 
baking powders we have', on anatysis, yields as follows : 
Cream tartar, bicarbonate of soda and water, 85.416 
Flour, - - - 9.522 

Sand, etc, - - . 5.062 



100.000 
Chlorine and Sulphuric acid, trace. 
Anotljier ' ' yeast powder" yielded as follows : 



18 BANANA. 

Cream tartar, and bicarbonate of soda, 63.267 

Flour, - - 32.568 

Sand, etc, - - 4.165 



100.000 



Trace of Chlorine and Sulphuric acid. 

In using baking powder it is mixed with the dough, 
the moistui'e in which is sufficient to cause the acid to 
act on the soda, and carbonic acid gas is evolved which 
causes the dough to rise. The gi'eat advantage of these 
powders over yeast, is the rapidity with which it forms 
the gas, thus enabling baking to be done very much 
quicker. 

Banana, (musa sajnentum) is the fruit of a species 
of palm, a native of India, but now generally cultivated 
thi'oughout the ti'opics of Asia. Afiica, and America. 
It is regarded by some botanists as merely a variety- of 
the plantain {musa paradisica.) The banana forms a 
principal article of food to the inhabitants of the tropics. 
The ti^ee which bears this fruit has an herbaceous stalk, 
about five or six inches in diameter at the sui'face of the 
ground, and tapering upward to the heights of fifteen or 
twenty feet. The leaves are in a cluster at the to^) ; they 
are ver}' large, being six feet long, and two feet broad, 
with a strong midrib. The spike of flowers rises from the 
centre of the leaves to the height of about four feet. The 
fniit is about an inch in diameter, eight or nine inches in 
length, and bent a httle on one side. As it ripens it 
turns yellow, and is filled with a pulp of a luscious sweet 
taste. These clusters contain from one hundred to two 
hundi'ed specimens, and weigh fr'om seventy to eighty 



BARLEY BEAN. 19 

pounds. The banana is very productive and on the 
same amount of ground will yield of nutritious material 
in proportion to wheat as 132 to 1, and of potatoes as 
44 to 1. The banana is now cultivated in Florida and 
bears continually, the shoots from the main stalk coming 
into bearing as the old one dies. 

Barley, {Hordeum vulgare) is a plant belonging to 
the grass family, and extensively cultivated in all tem- 
perate climates and used as an article of food. In this 
country the grain is raised almost exclusively for the use 
of breweries. When the skin has been removed and a 
portion of the berr}^ cut off and rounded by passing 
through millstones of a peculiar kind, the kernels having 
been preidously steamed and dried, it forms what is 
known as the Pearl Barley of commerce, a food much used 
for invahds. In 1875, there were consumed of imported 
barley, 6,229,688 bushels. 

Bath Brick, a preparation of calcareous earth in the 
form of a brick, and used for scouring knives. It is im- 
ported from France, and also manufactured in this coun- 
try at Joliet, Illinois. 

Bean, {FhaseoUes nanus.) A leading vegetable of 
our market gardens, and extensively cultivated in aU sec- 
tions of the country. It is used as food in both the green 
and ripe state. In the green state they are known as 
string beans, and the pod and seed are both eaten. 
When ripe they are shelled and are then known as dry 
beans. In the early spring, string beans are largely 
shipped from the south to the northern markets where 
they find a read}^ sale. In the dr}^ state beans form an 
important article in the produce markets. The white 



20 BEER. 

marrowfat is the variety generally cultivated to sell in a 
dry state. Besides the bush bean, we have the pole bean, 
Phaseolus vulgaris, which grows to the height of ten feet 
and requires support. The Lima is the best known of 
this class. The bean is originally a native of India. 

Beer, a beverage in common use, the fermented infu- 
sion of malted barley, flavored with hops. The first op- 
eration in the making of beer, is the manufacture of the 
malt (which see.) The color of the malt depends on the 
temperature of the kiln at the time of drying, and the 
different colored malts are used for the various Mnds of 
beer. In the brewing of malt it is first ground or crushed 
by passing between iron rollers. It is then placed in the 
mash tub with warm water and the temperature gradually 
raised to about 167° F., when the starch of the malt 
is converted into glucose and dextrine which are dissolved 
b}' the water. One barrel of beer requires from one to 
fom- bushels of malt, and when malt is high, other sac- 
charine substances are sometimes substituted for it. After 
the infusion has been allowed to settle, the clear wort is 
drawn off into a copper vessel when it is boiled with 
hops ; from one to five pounds of hops being added, ac- 
cording to the strength and quantity of beer being made, 
the boihng hquor is then strained and run into coolers, 
where it is cooled as rapidly as possible, and it is then 
put into the fermenting vats or tuns. The next process 
is that of fermentation by the addition of one gallon of 
yeast to one hundred of wort ; and during this process a 
part of the saccharine matter is converted into alcohol and 
carbonic acid, the latter rising to the top carrying with it 
particles of yeast and forming a scum. After fermenting 



BEESWAX. 21 

several days the beer is separated from the yeast, and 
transferred to the cleansing butts where it is purified by 
the addition of finings. The beer is then transferred to 
casks and set away, where it developes its qualities and 
is ready for use. The quantity of alcohol found in beer 
is in varying quantity, according to the strength of the 
beer. 

Ale is prepared from pale malt and contains a large 
percentage of sugar. . Pale ale is made from malt dried 
in the sun or by steam. Scotch ale is a strong, sweet ale. 
Small beer is made from the remainder, after the wort 
for ale has been drawn off, by the addition of more water. 
Porter.) is a dark colored beer made from a mixture of 
pale, amber, brown and black malt. Stout, is a variety 
of porter. Lager beer is beer fermented at low tempera- 
ture with bottom yeast. It can be kept a long time, and 
is extensively used. It was first manufactured in Bava- 
ria. Beer is a stimulant and tonic, and also contains nu- 
tritious matter derived from the malt. 

Beeswax, the material secreted by bees and of which 
their cells are manufactured. The wax, separated from 
the honey, is an important article of commerce. The 
honey being separated from the comb by pressure, or by 
means of the honey extractor, the residual wax is heated 
with water and stirred until it melts. It is then strained 
into a vessel of cold water and sohdifies on the surface 
into a thick, yellowish cake. It is rendered white by the 
action of the sun and moisture. Purified beeswax is 
tasteless, colorless and odorless. It is insoluble in water 
and fuses at 145° F. It enters largely into the manu- 
factui'e of candles and tapers. 



22 BEET BLACKING. 

Beet, {Beta vulgaris) . This is one of our most large- 
ly cultivated vegetables. It has a large, esculent root, 
rich in saccharine matters. In France and Germany 
large quantities of sugar are manufactured from the va- 
riety known as the sugar beet. The boiled roots are a 
common article of diet in nearly aU civilized countries. 
The young leaves are also boiled and eaten as greens. 
The red beet is the best variety cultivated in gardens. 
The best market varieties are. Short-top Round, Bassano, 
Pineapple and Long Smooth Blood. During the early 
season, beets are largely shipped from the South to the 
northern markets. Swiss Chard {Beta cida) is only 
grown for its leaves ; the midrib is boiled hke asparagus 
and the remainder of the leaf used as spinach. 

Blackberry, the common name of several species of 
Rubus^ natives of the United States. The plant is shi-ub- 
b}^ in its growth, and some species reach the height of six 
feet. Ruhus vilosus, our common blackberry, grows a- 
bundantly in all parts of the United States, along the 
borders of fields, and in woods. In some of the South- 
ern States, large quantities of the berries are dried and 
sent to market. They are also canned to some extent, 
but the fruit is rather insipid. The fruit of the black- 
berry is not a true berry, but a collection of drupes or 
stone fruits on a fleshy receptacle. 

Blacking, a preparation used for the blacking of boots, 
shoes, etc. The essential ingredients are ivory black, 
vinegar or sour beer, sugar or molasses, a little sweet oil, 
and sulphuric acid. Blacking appears in the market both 
in the form of paste and of a hquid. Many varieties are in 
use and differ in the proportions of the various ingredi- 



BLOATER BLUE VITRIOL. 23 

ents used. Any blacking which will retain its oily con- 
sistence of a paste when exposed to the air, is superior 
to that which dries and becomes harsh. An excess of 
blacking is injurious to leather on account of the acid 
present. For the production of a pohsh a fine brush is 
necessary as a coarse one will scratch the polish. 

Bloater, herring slightly dried and smoked and intend- 
ed for immediate use. (See Herring.) 

Blue Fish, (Temnadar saltator) , a fish allied to the 
mackerel, but larger and found in abundance off our At- 
lantic coast. It is a very voracious fish and feeds on 
mackerel and smaller fishes. Its weight varies from five 
to ten pounds ; as a fish for the table it is of superior 
quality. 

Blueing, an article used in the laundry for the color- 
ing of clothes. It is sold in either the dry or liquid form. 
The latter is sometimes a dilute solution of the sulphate 
of indigo in water ; but it is generally made from Prus- 
sian blue (ferrocyanide of iron), dissolved in water by 
means of oxalic acid. The dry blueing may be prepared 
from the acid solution of indigo, by precipitating the indi- 
go by means of a solution of salt. Another method is by 
neutralizing the acid solution by the carbonate of soda ; 
indigo appears as a precipitate, which is washed on a 
filter with a solution of salt and sold as a paste, or as a 
dry powder. 

Blue Yitriol, the commercial name for sulphate of 
copper (CuSO^) . It is obtained by oxidizing at a low 
temperature the native sulphides of copper, as in the 
roasting of ores from which a considerable amount may 
be obtained by treating the roasted ores with water. It 



24 BOKAX — BORECOLE. 

may also be formed by treating oxide of copper with di- 
lute sulphui'ic acid and is an accidental product in various 
operations in the arts, as in the refining of gold and sil- 
ver. It exists in large rhomboidal crj^stals of a beautiful 
sapphire blue color which are soluble in four parts of water. 
It is slightly efflorescent in dry air. Blue vitriol is A^ery 
extensively used in dj^eing and in calico printing. It has 
some application in medicine and is used to some extent 
as a preservative of timber, etc. It has also a quite im- 
portant apphcation in a certain class of electrical bat- 
teries. 

Borax, a compound of boracic acid and soda, and is 
found free in nature as a saline incrustation on the shores 
of lakes in Thibet, Persia and India ; also in South Amer- 
ica and in lakes on our Pacific coast. Borax is a white 
salt of a sweetish alkaline taste. It is very fusible and is 
much used as a flux in metallic mixtures and in welding 
ii'on. It is also used as a blowpipe reagent, from the fa- 
cihty with which it forms colored glasses with metallic 
oxides. 

Borecole, or Kale, one of the varieties of the common 
cabbage and is grown in the vicinity of New York, not 
having come into general cultivation. It is said to be the 
most dehcate and tender of all the cabbage tribe. Brus- 
sels SPROUTS. This vegetable has never come into gen- 
eral use, probabty owing to its being too tender to stand 
our northern winters. This is distinguished from all other 
varieties of the cabbage tribe by the sprouts or buds about 
the size of walnuts which grow thickly around the stem ; 
these sprouts are the parts used and are equal in flaA'Or 
and tenderness to cauliflower or broccoh. 



BRANDT — BRAZIL NUTS. 25 

Brandy, a spirit that should be distilled from wine, hut 
in the United States is distilled from the fermented juice 
of other fruits, as the pear, apple, cherry and peach. 
The flavor of the brandy depends on the quality of the 
wine from which it is manufactured, and good judges can 
tell from its flavor, the wine from which it was made. 
The best brandies are those obtained from the white wines 
of the regions of Cognac and Armagnac, districts of 
France. Brandies are distinguished as pale and dark. 
When first distilled the liquor is without col6r, and the 
pale amber tint it acquires is derived from the wood of 
the cask in which it is kept. Burnt sugar is added to 
new brandy which gives it the color of old brandy. Large 
quantities of common whiskey are exported to France 
from this country and returned as a sort of fictitious bran- 
dy. In France, rum, beet-root spirits and spirits from po- 
tatoes are largely used in its manufacture. The brandy 
made in the United States is derived from rectified whis- 
key made from Indian corn. Its flavor is given it by add- 
ing ascetic ether, oil Cognac, tannin, and burnt sugar to 
give it color. 

Brazil Nuts, also called Para nuts, are the seeds of 
Bertholletia excelsa, a beautiful tree of 100 feet in height 
gTOwing in Brazil and Guiana. The fruit is a thick, 
hard, woody capsule, like a pot with a lid, about four 
inches in diameter and five, six, or more in height. It 
contains many triangular nuts, laid over each other in a 
regular manner ; when fresh these nuts are sweet and 
pleasant to the taste. They yield large quantities of oil 
which is used for the purposes of illumination. The 
large capsules when falling in the forests are said to be a 



26 BREAD. 

source of great danger to travellers. For the year 1875, 
there were consumed in the United States 2,647,682 
pounds of Brazil nuts. 

Bread. An article of food prepared by the thorough 
mixtui'e of flour, water and salt in proper proportions, 
and then baked. In the United States, bread is almost 
whoUy made from wheat flour. Unleavened bread is that 
made without fermentation, or the employment of j^east, 
and is simply formed into a dough and baked. Kaised 
or fermented bread is that which has been made porous 
and spongy, by the aid of some gas produced before or 
during baking. Fermented bread is prepared by the 
addition of leaven or the use of ^^east. When leaven is 
used a portion of each baking is set aside for the next 
batch. . It is difficult to make good bread from leaven 
on account of the trouble of mixing the leaven uniformly 
throughout the dough, so as to have it equall}' porous 
when baked. In the manufactui'e of home-made bread, 
yeast is the fermenting agent generally employed. It 
can be obtained from the brewers, and in the cities the 
German or compressed yeast may be had fresh dail}'. 
This yeast is thoroughly mixed with the dough, and 
much kneading is very essential to the making of good 
bread. This ^^east sets up fermentation in the dough and 
carbonic acid is evolved which penetrates the dough 
making it light and porous. The carbonic acid is gener- 
ated from the sugar contained in the flour. During the 
process of baking there is a loss of weight of about 25 
per cent., cliiefly water. In the baking of bread a high 
temperature is necessary but the heat should be raised 
gradually so as to have the loaf baked throughout ; it 



BRIMSTONE — BROOM. 27 

can be baked at 212° F. but no crust will be formed. 
Sour bread arises from the flour being partly, spoiled, or 
from too old yeast or leaven, or from letting the dough 
stand too long before baking ; bitter bread, from too much 
or bad j^east ; heavy, from too little kneading or yeast : 
and mouldy, from flour kept too long in a damp place. The 
use of yeast or leaven in the fermentation of bread may be 
dispensed with, and the gas generated by the addition of 
baking powder (which see.) Graham bread is made 
from the unbolted meal of wheat and is a mixture of bran 
and flour. Rye bread is used to some extent but is 
darker and harder than that made from wheat. Wheat 
flour makes better bread on account of the large quantity 
of gluten found in the flour, which retains the gas, mak- 
ing the bread light and porous. Alum is sometimes 
added to flour in the making of bread, for the purpose of 
increasing its weight, as the alum retains a large pro- 
portion of water ; a mixture of potato starch and boiled 
rice is sometimes added for the same purpose. Alum in 
bread may be detected by dipping a piece in a w^atery 
solution of logwood, when a claret color will be produced 
if alum is present. 

Brimstone, the common and commercial name for 
sulphur, (which see) . 

Broccoli, a garden vegetable closely resembhng the 
cauliflower and is a variety of the cabbage (Brassica 
oleracea). It is grown as a fall crop, and as an article of 
food is about equal to the cabbage. 

Broom, a domestic utensil for sweeping, made of va- 
rious materials, most commonly, with us, of broom corn, 
a species of sorghum introduced from Africa. The hau- 



28 BRUSH. 

dies for the brooms are raade by a broom handle lathe, 
out of either hard or soft wood. The corn is stripped of 
its seeds by a machine, the broom corn seed-stripper, 
shaped something like a comb, through which the corn 
is pulled. The stripped corn is then sorted and cut 
into proper lengths for the broom. The sewing of the 
broom is done by hand and by machinery, cheap brooms 
being made b}^ the latter process ; whisk brooms are 
simply small brooms with short handles used as sub- 
stitutes for brushes. 

Brush. An assemblage of hair, hogs bristles, strips 
of whalebone or short wu-e fastened to a handle either 
collectively or in separate tufts. The smallest kind of 
brushes are called pencils^ and are made from the hair of 
the camel, badger, squirrel, goat, etc. Hogs bristles are, 
however, the material principally used, the white and 
better kinds being employed for hair, tooth, clothes and 
hat brushes, and also for the better class of paintbrushes. 
The bristles are first sorted according to color, and then 
as to their size, by a series of combs with the teeth of 
varying width. The paint brush, the simplest form of 
brush, is made by inserting full length bristles between 
two projecting prongs in the handle and seeming thei^ 
by a wi'apping of twine which is afterwards protected by 
a coating of glue mixed with red lead. Hair brooms, 
dusters, etc., are made by inserting tufts of bristles into a 
stock or head, previously bored for their reception. 
These are frequently bored triangTilarly to the face, or the 
face itself is rounded so as to give the tufts an outward 
splay when inserted ; the root ends are first dipped into 
melted pitch, bound with thread, again dipped, and then 



BUCKWHEAT. 29 

inserted with a sort of twisting motion. Brushes of this 
description are generally made with bristles of full length ; 
but where stiffness is required as in hair or scrubbing 
brushes, the tuft of bristles is doubled so as to present 
both ends outward, and are then cut off square and even. 
The stocks or brush boards are cut from pieces of re- 
quisite thickness, so as to get two out of each width 
of board. 

The holes are drilled through a pattern board to in- 
sure uniformity. Drawing^ the next step in the manu- 
facture is performed by clamping the drilled stock to a 
table, and passing a loop of brass wire through the first 
hole in the first row, inserting a tuft of bristles and 
drawing on the wire so as to bring it to its place ; then 
inserting another tuft and so on. The bristles are then 
cut the requisite length. The drawing wires are covered 
with veneering to strengthen and improve the brush ; it 
is then finished with a spoke shave and scraper, sand- 
papered and varnished. Brushes are also made by 
machinery. Woodbury's brush-making machine will 
make an ordinary scrub brush in one minute ; as the 
holes do not pass through the wood no back is required. 

Bnckwheat, {Fagopyrum esculentum) an annual plant, 
with purple stem two to four feet high, much branched. 
It is a native of Asia, and is believed to have been intro- 
duced into Spain by the Moors. It is now largely culti- 
vated in the temperate regions of Europe and America. 
It grows well on poor soil, matures rapidly, but is very 
sensitive to the frost. The crop is sometimes raised for 
the purpose of ploughing it under as a manure, and also 
for the flowers which serve as a bee pasture ; but the 



30 BUTTER. 

honey is of inferior quality. But the principal use of the 
crop is in producing of flour from the seeds ; it furnishes 
a white flour, from which a popular gruel is made in Ger- 
many and Poland. In some parts of France, it is made 
into a dark bread and also cakes. In this country and 
England the flour is almost entirely used in the making 
of breakfast cakes, or buckwheat cakes as they are com- 
monly called. It forms an extremely nutritious diet for 
winter consumption, but if used in excess is apt to cause 
eruptions on the skin. 

Butter, no article is of more importance to the retail 
grocer than good butter, and it is a difficult matter to 
maintain a standard grade, unless it is the product of a 
factory. Butter is the fatty substance extracted from 
milk, in this country the milk being that from the cow. 
The composition of the milk and consequently of the 
cream varies with the breed, age, and food of the cow, 
aU of which circumstances must be taken into consider- 
ation in the making of butter. When milk is allowed to 
stand, the globules of fat rise to the surface and form a 
layer of cream. 

Dr. Yoelcker gives the composition of cream as follows : 

Fat (butter) - - - 33.43 

Caseine - - - 2.62 

Sugar - - - - 1.56 

Salts - - - - 0.72 

Water - - - =61.67 



100.00 
To procure the cream for the manufacture of butter, 
the milk is placed in a cellar at a temperature of from 



BUTTER. 31 

55° F. to 60° F. After the cream rises, wMch takes 
place in from twenty-five to thirty-six hours, it is skim- 
med off and put into a stone jar until sufficient cream is 
accumulated to perform the process of churning. Care 
should be taken not to keep the cream too long, as it im- 
pairs the quality of the butter, gi\4ng it a cheesey taste. 
The process of churning consists of a violent agitation of 
the cream by means of a dasher, which causes the fat 
globules to unite in larger masses, and finally to sepa- 
rate entirely from the watery residue called butter-milk. 
No form of churn has yet been invented which is superi- 
or to the old-fashioned dasher churn. From forty-five 
minutes to one hour should be occupied in churning. If 
the butter comes much sooner it is apt to be frothy, and 
if much longer it is apt to be badly flavored. The butter 
is then washed in cold water, thoroughly worked or 
kneaded to expel the water, and made into rolls or prints 
when required for immediate use. If it is desired to be 
kept some length of time, it is packed in stone jars or 
wooden firkins ; the latter being preferable for shipping, 
which will contain, generally, 56 or 100 lbs. of butter. 
About one ounce of salt is used to a pound of butter for 
packing purposes. Only the purest salt should be used, 
such as the Asiiton or Syracuse salt, made expressly for 
dairy use. Sometimes sugar and saltpeter are added to in- 
crease its keeping qualities. At the Orange County fac- 
tories in New York, the following receipe is used : For 
every 22 pounds of butter, 16 oz. of salt, one tea-spoon- 
full of saltpeter, and a table-spoonfull of the best pow- 
dered white sugar. Butter made from cows fed on rich 
pasture, is of a deep j^ellow color. Hence poorer butters 



32 BUTTER. 

are often colored with annatto, turmeric, or the juice of 
carrots. Manufactui'ed butter has the following average 
composition. 

Pure fatty matter - . - 83.00 

Water 12.50 

Common Salt - - - - 3.50 

Milk Sugar - - . - .60 

Caseine and Albumen - - .40 



100.00 
The most common way of adulterating butter is b}^ the 
addition of an excess of salt, or j^ater is allowed to re- 
main in too large amounts. The rancidity of butter is 
due to the development of butyric acid, readily recog- 
nized b}" taste or smell, both being equally offensive. 

Artificial Butter. A large factory is now in opera- 
tion in New York for the manufacture of this butter, or 
" oleo-margarine," as it is called. Butter contains the 
three fats, oleine, palmitine and stearine. The same is 
true of suet, with the exception of less oleine, and by re- 
moving the excess of palmitine and stearine, a mixed fal 
remains, of the consistence of butter ; this fat or oleo-mar- 
garine is then poured into a churn, while still liquid, with 
about half its volume of fresh milk and nearly as much 
water. A little annatto is then added for coloring and the 
whole is then churned, yielding a sweet, palatable butter 
which is treated in the same manner as ordinary butter. 
This butter is difficult to distinguish from the genuine ar- 
ticle ; it is cheap, clean, healthy and equal to genuine 
butter ; but on account of prejudice is not used extensive- 
ly as yet. In New York a law has been passed compel- 



BUTTERNUT CAMPHOR. 33 

ling all parties selling this butter to label it as '* oleo-mar- 
garine." 

Butternut, is the fruit of Juglans cinerea, a beautiful 
tree of from 20 to 30 feet in height. The fruit is oblong 
and clamm3\ The nut is thick furrowed and sharply 
ridged, and about two inches in length. The kernel is 
sweet and pleasant, but from its abundance of oil soon 
becomes rancid unless well dried. The half green fruit 
gathered in June, and with its down removed, is used for 
making pickles. 

Cabbage, a well known garden vegetable and a variety 
of Brassica oleracea^ a member of the mustard family. 
The other varieties of this species are the cauliflower, 
broccoli, borecole and brussels sprouts. The original of 
all these varieties grows wild on the rocky shores of Eng- 
land and in this condition has no appearance of a head. 
The cabbage is distinguished into two kinds according to 
the period of ripening, as early and late cabbage. Of 
early cabbages the best are the Early York, Jersey, 
Wakefield and Early Winningstadt. Of late ones we 
have the Drumhead, Flat Dutch, Mason, Drumhead 
Savoy, and Ked Dutch. The cabbage is a biennial plant, 
during the first season perfecting its growth, and in the 
second the seeds are produced, when the whole plant 
perishes. As an article of food, cabbage is not very nu- 
tritious, but eaten cold in the form of a salad it is very 
wholesome. 

Camphor, is a concrete, volatile product obtained 
from many different plants, especially those of the Lau- 
rel family. The greater part of the camphor of com- 
merce is obtained from the camphor laurel or camphor 



34 CAMPHOE. 

tree (Camphor a officinarum) a native of China, Japan, 
and Formosa and which has been introduced into the 
West Indies and Java. The tree grows to a large size, 
has evergreen leaves, yellowish white flowers in panicles 
and a fruit somewhat resembhng a black currant. All 
parts of the tree possess the odor of camphor, and yield 
this article when cut into small pieces and distilled. The 
process is conducted in large iron kettles furnished with 
dome -shaped covers in which is placed a quantity of 
straw. The wood of the tree cut into chips is placed in 
the kettles together with a small quantity of water, and a 
moderate degTee of heat applied when the camphor is 
vaporized, and rising is condensed upon the straw placed 
for the purpose in the tops. After separation from the 
straw, it is packed and sent into market constituting the 
crude camphor of commerce. This has to be further pu- 
rified before it is fit for most uses to which it is to be ap- 
plied. The art of refining was long monopolized in 
Europe by the Venetians and afterward by the Dutch. 
The crude article is introduced together with about 1-50 
of its bulk of quick lime into iron retorts, over which are 
placed sheet iron covers connecting with the retort b}^ a 
single small opening. A number of these retorts are 
placed in a sand-bath, and the temperature raised until 
the melting point of camphor is reached, when they are 
kept at a uniform temperature that the process may go 
on quietly. The lime takes up the moisture which would 
otherwise interfere with the condensation of the camphor 
vapor which takes place in the cover, and from which 
the pure camphor is removed in the form of a circular 
cake having a hole through its centre. 



CAMPHOR. 35 

Borneo or Sumatra camphor, also called hard cam- 
phor, is obtained from the Dryohalanops camphora a very 
large tree, native of Sumatra and Borneo. The cam- 
phor is found in the sohd state in fissures and cavities in 
the heart of the tree, from which it is obtained by felling 
the tree and splitting it into small fragments, from which 
the gum is picked by means of a sharp pointed instru- 
ment. It is sometimes found in masses as large as a 
man's arm, but usually in small particles, the largest trees 
rarely yielding more than twenty pounds of the crude 
material, whilst many trees contain none at all. The 
gum is of better quality than the common officinal cam- 
phor, and the Chinese ascribe to it marvelous medicinal 
properties, and will pay for it from fifty to one hundred 
times the price of ordinary camphor, for which reason it 
is almost never seen in Europe or America, being all con- 
sumed by the Chinese. The same tree produces, when 
young, a pale yellow liquid known as oil of camphor, 
which is generally supposed to be the camphor before ac- 
quiring by age a concrete state. It is considered valua- 
ble as an external application for rheumatism. 

The composition of camphor is represented by the for- 
mula CioH«0. Its specific gravity is 0.987 ; its melting 
point 288° F., and it boils at 400° F. It is a semi-trans- 
parent, white substance crystallizing in hexagonal plates. 
It is soft, friable, but tough, being difficult to reduce to 
powder. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readilj- 
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and the essential 
oils. It has a somewhat bitter and pungent taste, a 
strong, fragrant, and highly penetrating odor which is 
exceedingly noxious to troublesome insects ; and it is 



36 CANARY SEED — CANDLES. 

consequently much used in preserving specimens in nat- 
ural history, as well as clothing, furs, etc. Exposed to 
the air it quite rapidly vaporizes. It is highly inflamma- 
ble, burning with much smoke and hght. Camphor is 
used in medicine internally and externally as a stimu- 
lant ; in small doses it is an anodyne and antispasmodic, 
in large doses, it is a narcotic poison. Its alcoholic so- 
lution, and hniments in which it is an ingredient, are 
much used as external applicants for sprains, bruises, 
chilblains and chronic rheumatism. The importation of 
crude camphor into the United States, in 1875, amounted 
to nearly 1,000,000 pounds. 

Canary-seed, is the product of the canary grass, Pha- 
laris canariensis^ a native of the Canary Islands. It is 
cultivated for its seed in England and Continental 
Europe ; it is also sparingly cultivated in the United 
States. The seed is used as the food of cage birds. In 
the Canary Islands it is used by the natives as an article 
of food, as it contains a large quantity of farina which is 
very nutritious. Of imported canar}^ seed there were 
consumed, in 1875, 49,217 bushels. 

Candles, are made from tallow, wax, spermaceti, par- 
affine and other fatty substances formed into small cyhn- 
ders round loosely twisted wicks and used for portable 
lights. They were formerly prepared chiefly from tallow 
and spermaceti by the process known as dipping. The 
wicks were first dipped into the warm semi-fluid tallow 
until saturated and then lifted and hung upon frames un- 
til cold when they were again dipped, and the process 
continued until the desired size was reached. This pro- 
cess has been replaced by that of moulding, in which the 



CANDLES. 37 

melted material is poured into moulds of tin or other met- 
al, or glass, in the centres of which the wicks have previ- 
ously been stretched. Wax candles have been found dif- 
ficult to mould on account of the wax adhering to the 
interior of the moulds ; they are consequently made by 
dipping, and by pouring the wax over the wicks, until a 
sufficient thickness is obtained, and then forming the can- 
dles by rolling between marble or hard wood slabs. 
They are also sometimes formed by drawing through a 
machine constructed for the purpose, much as wire is 
drawn. It has, however, recently been found that wax 
candles ma}'- be moulded by the use of glass moulds, 
which, when the candles are to be withdrawn, are dipped 
for a mom^ent in warm water which causes the glass to ex- 
pand sufficiently to loosen the candles and allow of their 
being readily extracted. The best candles in common use 
are made of spermaceti. This substance is found ready 
formed in the head cavities of the Sperm whale, existing 
there mixed with oil in a liquid form, which when remov- 
ed becomes a white crystalhne mass consisting of a liquid 
oil and a white solid, which is the pure spermaceti. The 
oil is removed by placing the mass in hempen bags and 
subjecting them to heavy pressure, after which the sper- 
maceti is further purified by boiling with lye, and some- 
times by other means, before being used for candles. 
Great improvements have been made in the manufacture 
of tallow candles since the investigations of M. Chevreul 
and others have led to a knowledge of the composition of 
animal and vegetable oils and fats. These consist of 
several distinct kinds of fats of different degrees of fusi- 
bility, chiefly oleine, stearine and palmitine, which are 



38 CANDLES. 

compounds of the fatty acids, oleic acid, stearic acid and 
palmetic acid, with a pecuhar base called glj'cerine. The 
base glycerine adds but little to the inflammability of the 
acids with which it is combined. Oleic acid is a fluid oil 
at ordinary temperature, and its presence in the tallow 
adds fluidity and a tendenc}^ to run, whilst stearic and 
palmitic acids are sohd and when freed from glycerine 
and oleic acid form a most excellent material for candles. 
Such a mixture of stearic and palmitic with also usually 
a quantity of margaric acids is known in commerce as 
stearine. 

A method of obtaining stearine free from oleic acid and 
glycerine was first successfully emploj^ed by Messrs. De 
Milly and Motard in 1831, and in 1873 the manufacture 
had grown to such proportions that 130,000 tons of this 
article was prepared in Europe. The process as at pres- 
ent conducted consists essentially in first decomposing 
the fats into fatty acids and gl3'cerine, by a continuous 
automatic commingling of water and steam with the fats 
under a pressure of ten to twenty atmospheres during a 
period of from twelve to twenty hours. Other methods 
of decomposition are however in use : e. g., by treating 
with superheated steam and lime, by digesting with sul- 
phuric acid, etc. After the decomposition is effected the 
oleic acid is removed by placing the crude material in 
strong sacks and submitting it to heavy pressure between 
metalhc plates in a hydrauhc press. The remaining 
mixture, principally stearic and palmitic acids, is the well 
known stearine of commerce, and is ready for manufacture 
into candles. Pure stearic acid melts at 158*^ F. and 
palmitic acid at 140° F. Commercial stearine melts at 



CANDLES. 39 

130° to 132° F. Candles made from this material are 
known as Stearine, Adamantine, Belmont sperm, or from 
the fact that they were first mannfactured near the Bar- 
riei'e de VEtoile in Paris they are recognized the world 
over as Bougies de VEtoile or star candles. 
^ ParaflEine has recently been largely introduced in the 
manufacture of candles. By itself paraffine makes a can- 
dle of great beauty, but is objectionable from its too great 
fluidity and liability to droop in warm weather ; when 
however from five to twenty per cent, of stearine is add- 
ed to it, candles are produced having the appearance 
of wax and but httle more fusible than are stearine can- 
dles. Paraffine is also largely used for "breaking the 
grain" or preventing crystallization in stearine candles. 

Stearine, paraffine and wax candles are made of ahnost 
any color by the use of aniline colors of the desked tint. 

The character of the wick is of great importance m the 
manufacture of candles, and much care is needed to ad- 
just the size of the wick to the weight of the candle and 
to determine the character of wick which shall give the 
best results with each variety of candle made. Various 
dq\dces have been employed to induce the complete com- 
bustion of the wick and obviate the necessity for remov- 
ing the charred end which decreases greatly the light ob- 
tained by " snuffing." Cambaceres, in 1825, introduced 
a system of plaiting and twisting the wicks so that when 
burning the free end should be deflected in such a way as 
to bring it to the outside of the flame and into contact 
with the air where its complete combustion can take place. 
This system is still in use ; the wicks are made of plaited 
cotton woven by a machine which lays up eighty or nine- 



40 CANNING. 

ty strands in such manner as in burning to cause the wick 
to open at top and spread out to the edge of the flame. 
Wicks are also made of two parts twisted in opposite di- 
rections and wound with a fine thread. In burning they 
untwist and deflect the end of the wick outward. A twist 
is also sometimes given to wicks by winding them round 
a small cyhnder, and in this condition saturating them 
with the melted stearine. When the candle is burned the 
wick uncoils, thus carrying the end to the outer side of 
the flame. A more important discovery, however, was 
that of De Milly , that by soaking the wicks in a weak so- 
lution of boracic acid the formation of a mushroom of un- 
consumed wick might be entirely prevented. The wicks 
are soaked for two or three hours in a bath holding in so- 
lution one and one-half per cent, of boracic acid and one 
and one-half per cent, of ammoniac sulphate, after which 
the wick is dried and singed in a lamp flame to remove 
the little filaments of adhering cotton. This discovery 
has been of great importance to the candle-making indus- 
try, increasing as it does to a great degTee the value of 
the candles and the extent to which they are used. 

Canning. The preserving of fruits and vegetables by 
the process of canning has of late years reached to an 
almost incredible amount. Domestic canning has be- 
come a necessary part of household economy, but the 
canning for market is what is of interest here. Canning for 
market is conducted on a large scale, and such is the 
division of labor and the employment of machinerj^ that 
the products can be turned out at yerj low cost. These 
factories generally put up a variety of fruits and vegeta- 
bles, so as to be in operation dming the whole season. 



CANNING. 41 

In all canning operations the exclusion of the air from the 
cans is of the greatest importance and all the operations 
tend to this end. In all these factories a large number 
of people are employed and the operations are rapidly 
conducted. In some of the peach canning factories the 
fruit is piled on the upper floor and thrown into hoppers 
and conducted to tables on the lower floor, and the cans 
filled by placing them under the hopper and ]3ressing the 
fruit in with the fingers. The cans are then passed to 
another table where syrup — about one pound of sugar to 
the gallon of water — is filled in and time given to allow 
the air between the peaches to escape. The cans are then 
cleaned from the s}Tup spilled on the sides, and passed 
to the tinmen who put on the circular covers, rapidly 
soldering them down. Each can has a small hole in the 
top to allow the air to escape and after the cover is on this 
hole is soldered up. The cans are then placed in a rack 
and lowered into a tank of water which could be heated 
by steam. As the temperature increases the imperfect 
cans can be told by the escape of air and are taken out. 
The water is then raised to boihng which is continued for 
half an hour, more or less, according to the size and kind 
of the peaches. After being boiled the cans are allowed 
to cool slightly, and are then vented by opening the prick 
hole in the cap, which allows the steam to escape, and 
immediately closing it again, when the cans have cooled 
if all right, the head will snap in by a slight pressure 
showing that there is a good vacuum. The cans are then 
placed in the store room and labels put on them when 
sold. In canning tomatoes they are first slightly scalded 
so as to remove the skin, and when peeled are thj'own 



42 CAPER. 

into pans to allow some of the waterj' portion to drain 
off. They are then packed in cans and a little syrup 
added, made of water, sugar and salt. They are then 
sealed, tested and boiled as above described. The can- 
ning of corn is more difficult though similar in operation. 
The corn is boiled, cut from the cob, put into cans, and 
the spaces being filled with a little syrup of sugar and 
salt, the can is soldered tight. The cans are then boiled 
in a solution of chloride of calcium, or refuse from salt 
works ; this solution has a much higher boiling point than 
water. After being boiled for several hours the cans are 
taken out and vented, again soldered up and returned to 
the bath for another boihng of several hours duration, 
when they are taken out and the process is complete. 
The canning of all fruits and vegetables has a general 
resemblance to the above process, var3^ing of course in 
the details, and in the kind of materials canned. The 
number of articles canned for food is very large and con- 
stantly increasing ; all kinds of fmit, vegetables, meats, 
man}^ kinds of fish, oysters, etc., etc., are now in the 
market and find a ready sale. 

Caper, the common name of the pickled flower buds of 
Capparis spinosa of Southern Europe and Barbary. It 
is generally found wild on walls and rocks ; it is found 
gTowing on the walls of Rome, Sienna and Florence, and 
is especially cultivated in the south of Europe ; but our 
greatest suppl}^ is from the island of Sicily. In the early 
part of summer the plant begins to flower, and they con- 
tinue to appear successively till the beginning of winter. 

The young flower buds are picked every morning, and 
as they are gathered they are i)ut into vinegar and salt ; 



CARAWAY SEEDS — CASSIA BUDS. 43 

this operation continues as long as the plants are m a 
flowering state. When the season closes the buds are 
sorted according to their size and color, the smallest and 
greenest being the best. These are again put into vin- 
egar and then packed in jars and are ready for sale and 
exportation. 

Caraway Seeds are the fruits of Carum Carui, a 
plant of the family Umbelhferese, and cultivated in 
Europe and America for its aromatic seeds, which are 
used for flavoring pui'poses in cooking and confectionery. 

Carrot. (Daucus carota) . The common carrot is a 
biennial plant, a native of the East, but now naturalized 
in this country. It is cultivated for its root which is of 
a deep yellow, and is much used in soups and other culi- 
nary preparations. A French variety of carrot, quite 
small, is put up in cans and jars and to some extent im- 
ported into this country. Carrots are raised principally 
as food for animals. 

Cassia is furnished by Cinnamonum Cassia,, a tree 
growing from forty to fifty feet in height, and cultivated 
in China and other eastern countries as well as in Brazil. 
The China cassia is the best of all the cassias. The 
bark resembles true cinnamon, but is thicker, coarser 
and is used to adulterate the true article. Cassia bark is 
distinguished from cinnamon by being more brittle, and 
of less fibrous texture ; it is not so pungent and has more 
of a mucilaginous or gelatinous quality. 

Cassia Buds are the dried flower buds of the cassia 
tree. The best come from China and are round, bear- 
ing some resemblance to a clove but smaller, and have a 



44 CASTOR OIL. 

rich cinnamon flavor. Of imported cassia, there were 
consumed for 1875, 1,665,636 lbs. 

Castor-oil, Oleum ricini, a fixed oil obtained from the 
castor-oil jDlant, (Bicinus communis). The plant is a 
native of Asia, but has become naturahzed in most warm 
parts of the earth. It varies much in size and habit ; in 
Africa it is a ti'ee, whilst in Europe and the Northern 
United States, it is an annual, growing but from three to 
ten feet in height. It is often cultivated in gardens, 
where it is very ornamental from its stately growth, large 
pahnate-paltate leaves and glaucous purple stems. The 
seeds are about the size of a small bean, oval, the sur- 
face smooth, shining, and beautifully marbled. The oil 
is obtained from the seeds by heat or pressure, or by 
both combined. It is of better quahty when obtained by 
pressure without the aid of heat, and is then known as 
cold pressed oil. The quality also depends upon the 
greater or less maturity of the seeds, and the varie- 
ty of the plant from which they are obtained. In In- 
dia large quantities are extracted by boihng the seeds, 
but the oil is dark in color, irritating, and unfit to be used 
in medicine, but is extensively used there as a lamp oil. 
When pure, castor oil is of a light yellow color, shghtly 
viscid, the best being almost hmpid, of nauseous odor 
and oil}' taste. The best castor oil is one of the mildest 
of purgatives ; in doses of one or two tea-spoonfals it is 
a gentle laxative, whilst a dose of a table-spoonful will 
almost always open the bowels freel3^ The chief objec- 
tion to its use is its repulsive taste. Some attempt to ob- 
viate this difficulty by floating it upon hot coflee, or 
spiced sjTup, or by making it into an emulsion with hq- 



CATSUP — ^^CAYENNB, 45 

uor potassae and spicing ; others take it in " soda water." 
The manufacture of castor oil is extensively carried on in 
St. Louis ; the beans being grown in Southern Illinois 
and Missouri. 

Catsup, Catchup, or Ketchup is made from tomatoes, 
mushrooms, or walnuts, by boiling until soft, rubbing 
through a fine sieve, and seasoning to taste with a varie- 
ty of spices and condiments. It is put up for market 
either in bottles, or in bulk. 

Cauliflower, a well known garden vegetable : a varie- 
ty of Brassica oleracece. Unlike its nearly related varie- 
ties its leaves are not the parts eaten ; but the parts used 
are the flower buds, and the stalks of the plant trans- 
formed by cultivation into a compact, rounded head, of a 
white color, and of a delicate flavor. Besides being boil- 
ed for the table, it makes excellent pickles, and is almost 
always found in the mixed pickles of the shops. Two 
crops of cauliflower may be raised during the season, one 
in June and the other in the fall. 

Caviare, an article of food prepared from the roe of 
large fishes, especially the sturgeon. It is chiefly made 
in Eussia, though it is made to some extent in this coun- 
try and exported. In the process of manufacture, the 
roe is thoroughly cleaned from its membranes, mixed with 
salt, and the liquor pressed out. It is then dried and 
packed for sale. The best kind, which is most thoroughly 
freed from the membrane, is packed in kegs, while the 
inferior is made into small cakes. It is largely consumed 
in Russia, Italy, Greece and Turkey. 

Cayenne, a commercial product derived from Capsi- 
cum a genus of plants belonging to the Night-shade fami- 



46 CAYENNE. 

ly, and has no relation to the family which furnishes the 
real pepper. Cayenne pepper is derived from four spe- 
cies, viz. : (7. annuum, C. frutescansy C. cerasiforme, C. 
Groisum. The first two only are of importance. The 
first is an annual herbaceous plant, a native of tropical 
countries, growing in very poor soil, and cultivated in 
most parts of the world. It grows two or three feet high, 
and bears a pod of a conical form, recurved at the end, 
green when immature, but bright scarlet or orange when 
it ripens. It is used in the green state for pickling, and 
in medicine when ripe, dried, and gTOund into powder to 
make cayenne pepper. In England, the dried berries kept 
in the shops are called chillies. This variety is imported 
from the West Indies, as weU as raised in our own gar- 
dens. C. Frutescans fm-nishes the so called bird or guin- 
ea pepper, a hotter and more pungent, as well as a better 
flavored variety. The plant is a shrub, with berries 
scarcely an inch long and quite narrow. The berries are 
used in making pepper ^nlnegar, or pepper sauce. In 
Mexico and other warm countries of this continent, 
the red pepper is almost one of the necessaries of life. 
The common people li-\^Dg mostly upon vegetable food, 
use this stimulant freely, and it forms an accompaniment 
to every meal. The CRjenne of commerce is shamefully 
adulterated. Red lead and vermilion, or sulphm*et of 
mercurj^, are the worst materials introduced, both being 
deadly poisons, and ha^^ng the property of aggregating in 
the sj'stem, when taken in small quantities. They are 
added to keep up the color, and also to increase the weight. 
Ochres are employed for similar purposes ; salt also to 
improve the color, and add to the weight. Ground rice 



CELERY — CERESIN WAX. 4'7 

and turmeric are more harmless additions. The popular 
varieties of pepper, cultivated in our gardens, are the Bull 
Nose, an early variety of mild flavor, and used in the 
crude state, and for pickling ; the Squash pepper, the 
sort most generally grown ; Sweet mountain, large and 
of mild flavor, and used to make stufled pickles. 

Celery. (Apium graveolens) . A vegetable grown for 
the succulent and spicy petioles of the radical leaves, 
which are used as a salad. In order to render them pal- 
atable they require to be blanched, which is accomplished 
by ridging the plants with earth till they become whitened. 
The smaller or dwarf varieties are much superior to 
the large kinds. It is sometimes marketed as early as 
August but reaches its prime late in the season. Celery 
has a sweetish and aromatic taste and deserves to be more 
widely used as an article of food. 

Ceresin wax, Fossil wax, a general name for sev- 
eral distinct mineral hydrocarbons of the general formula 
Cu HjU of which one, AgTicerite, has recently assumed 
considerable economic importance as a substitute for 
beeswax, which in physical properties it much resembles. 
Ozocerite is found in large deposits in connection with 
the coal measures in Galicia in Spain and at Gresten in 
Austria, which deposits have, since 1872, been extensively 
explored and the ozocerite industry is already attaining 
large proportions, a single establishment in Vienna having 
facilities for working up 6,000,000 pounds of the raw 
wax annually. It is used for all purposes to which bees- 
wax is applied and from its higher melting point, 140° F, 
it is capable of being apphed to many uses to which the 
former is not adapted. 



48 CHALK CHEESE. 

Chalk is a soft, friable, earthy mineral, consisting 
chiefly of carbonate of calcium. It is entirely of animal 
origin consisting in part of the finely gi'ound remains of 
shells and corals and the excrement of shell fish and 
certain gregarious fishes but principally of the shells of 
microscopic marine animals of which by far the most 
abundant are the rhizapods. According to Ehrenburg a 
cubic inch of challi often contains more than a milhon of 
these minute organisms. Chalk is very abundant in 
England occuiTing in immense rock foundations and con- 
stituting cuff's of great height along the shores of the 
North Sea and the English channel. Chalk is burned in 
great quantities and used for lime. Whiting or Spanish 
white consists of finely powdered chalk which has been 
carefully purified and its harder particles removed. Chalk 
when thoroughly purified is used in medicine as an ab- 
sorbent in diarrhoea and as an antacid ; and also as a 
dentrifice. Cylindrical crayons for drawing upon the 
black-board are made in great quantities from chalk 
gi'ound and formed into a paste, to which consistency is 
given by adding small quantities of gum or wax. Any 
desired color is given by the addition of various pigments. 
The paste is then run into moulds where it is allowed to 
sohdify when the crayons are removed, packed with 
sawdust in small boxes and sent into market. 

Cheese, is the compressed curd of coagulated milk 
consisting of the caseine and butter with part of the wa- 
ter and salts of the milk, together with any coloring mat- 
ter and salt, which may have been added in the process 
of manufactm*e. Caseine plan's an exceedingly impor- 
tant part in the manufacture of cheese and is apparently 



CHEESE. 49 

much the most abundant constituent, but in *' whole 
^milk" cheese, it exists usually in less quantity than the 
butter. An analysis by Volcker of an average sample 
of good milk gave : 

Water, ----- 87.30 
Butter, - - - - - 3.75 

Caseine, - - - - - 3.31 

Milk, sugar and extractive matter, - 4.86 

Mineral matters, (ash) - 0.78 



100.00 

The cheese made from this milk had -the following 
composition : 

Water, ----- 37.85 

Butter, - - - - - 28.91 

Caseine, - - - - - 25.00 

Extractive matter, lactic acid, etc., - 4.91 

Mineral matter, containing common salt, - 3.33 



100.00 
The proportion of butter in cheese is subject to very 
great variations due to the richness of the milk, and the 
method of manufacture. Caseine is the coagulable ele- 
ment in milk, and belongs to the group of albuminoid or 
proteine compounds which compose the principal part of 
the nitrogenous material of plants and animals. The 
process of cheese-making consists essentially of gently 
warming the milk, and causing the curd to coagulate by 
the use of some acid, and the separation of the whey by 
draining, and finally forming the curd into a fine mass 
hy pressure in suitable moulds. The variations of the 



50 CHEESE. 

details of this process, are however, almost as numer- 
ous as the number of manufacturers. In Holland the 
milk is coagulated by Chlorhj^dric acid, whilst in this 
country and England, the dried rennet or foui'th stomach 
of the calf, is used for this purpose. The rennet is pre- 
pared for use by long continued steeping in brine, or 
whej^, which has been previous^ boiled, to free it from 
albuminous matter. The brme hquor is considered bet- 
ter if left to stand for weeks before being used. Much 
the greater proportion of cheese, in this country, is made 
at factories which are owned or supported b}- an associa- 
tion of farmers, and which use the milk of from one hun- 
dred to upward of fifteen hundred cows each. The pro- 
cess of cheese-making adopted in the factories is in a 
general way usuall}' nearly as follows : 

The evening's milk is kept in coolers during the night, 
at a temperature of about 60° and in the morning is add- 
ed to the morning's milk, the whole being then placed in 
a suitable vat, and raised to a temperature of from 80° 
to 100° F., by means of a warm water bath. When the 
milk has reached the desii'ed temperature, a sufficient 
quantity of rennet is added to cause the milk to coagu- 
late in about forty minutes : some makers add, at the 
same time, a quantity of sour whey, to facihtate the de- 
velopment of lactic acid which is held to prevent the spe- 
cies of fermentation which results in the formation of 
gaseous and other objectionable products. When the 
curd has become sufficiently firm to divide with a smooth 
fracture, when the finger is drawn through it, it is cut 
by means of curd knives, one set ha^dng perpendicular, 
and another horizontal blades, into cubes of from J to J 



CHEESE. 51 

inch in diameter, in order to hasten the separation of the 
whey. After standing fifteen or twenty minutes the 
curd is broken into still smaller pieces, by an instrument 
called the wire shovel breaker, and the temperature is 
still further raised, and, soon after, the whey is drawn off 
and the curd heaped in one end of the vat to drain. It 
is now allowed to stand until it becomes quite coherent, 
forming a partially solid mass which is next cut into thin 
slices, and allowed to cool, and as it becomes more firm 
it is broken up, and turned and stirred, care being taken 
not to handle whilst still so soft as to cause the buttery 
particles to be removed with the whey. In about an 
hour from the time the whey is drawn off it should have 
become cooled to about 70° and have become of a pecul- 
iar mellow, flaky appearance, which can only be judged 
of by experience, when it is, by some, placed in a hoop 
and gently pressed for ten or fifteen minutes to express 
more of the whey and arrest the process of fermentation. 
It is then taken out and broken into pieces about the size 
of peas, by means of the curd mill, after which it is 
salted, about two and a h-alf or three pounds of salt be- 
ing used to one hundred pounds of curd, with which it 
must be very thoroughly incorporated. After salting the 
curd is again placed in a hoop and subjected to quite 
heavy pressure for from twelve to twenty hours when it 
is removed, and the sharp edges pared away ; after which 
it is carefully bandaged with cotton cloth, turned, and 
again placed in the press, where it is subjected to still 
heavier pressure preferably for one or two daj^s longer, 
though in many of our factories the cheese is kept in 
press no more than twenty-four hours altogether. The 



52 CHEESE. 

temperature at which it is placed in the press is of very 
great importance, for if too high, gaseous fermentation 
takes place rendering the cheese very porous. Many of 
our factory cheeses are injured in this way. The tem- 
perature at which Chedder cheeses are placed in the 
press, is always between 60° and 65° F., and this point 
is considered by the makers, as of prime importance in 
the production of good cheese. 

Very great care is needed to preserve the most perfect 
cleanhness in all parts of the process in cheese making, 
milk being such an exceedingly sensitive fluid as to ab- 
sorb with the greatest readiness any taint, not only with 
which it may come in contact in the containing vessels, 
but which may exist in the air. The air of the dairy 
should accordingly be pure and cool, and all vessels used 
should be scalded in boihng water as soon as emptied, 
and if possible frequently allowed to stand in the direct 
rays of the sun. After the cheese is pressed, it is taken 
to the cming room, where it is rubbed thoroughly with 
fresh melted butter, and is then turned once a day, and 
repeatedly rubbed with butter until it is cured. The cur- 
ing room should be kept at a constant temperature of 
about 70° and should be but dimly hghted, not only for 
the purpose of excluding flies, but to avoid the chemical 
action of hght upon the curing cheese, at the same time 
it should be well ventilated and the air kept pure. 

Aside from the "whole milk" cheese whose- production 
we have described, there are many " skim milk" cheeses 
made at the creameries and elsewhere in this country, in 
which the evening's milk is set, and the cream skimmed 
from it in the morning, and used to make butter, whilst 



CHEESE. 53 

the sldnuned milk is added to the morning's milk and 
made into cheese. Skim milli cheese is also made from 
milk all of which has been skimmed, but it is hard and 
of very poor quahty. It is largely manufactured, how- 
ever, in England, and is used by the laborers in some 
countries as a substitute for, and to the almost entire 
exclusion of meat. 

Cream cheeses are sometimes made of pure cream, as 
the famous Neufchatel made in France, of cream thick- 
ened by heat, and compressed in a mould. It is es- 
teemed a gi'eat dehcacy, but is diificult to preserve in 
good condition. Cream Chedder is made by adding the 
cream from one milking, to the whole milk of the next 
in the proportion of one quart of cream to ten of milk, 
and the whole is then treated much the same as in the 
process of making whole milk cheese, but is handled with 
still greater care and when placed in the hoop is pressed 
by its own weight only being turned four or five times a 
day until sufficiently firm to be bandaged and taken to 
the curing room. 

All varieties of cheese are frequently colored, annatto 
being very commonly used to give an orange yellow col- 
or, while many English cheeses are given a greenish 
hue, by the use of sage and various kinds of grass. Of 
the more famous varieties of cheese the Chedder, Glou- 
cester, Stilton and Wiltshire of England; Gonda, Edam 
and Limburg of Holland ; Gruj^ere of Switzerland ; and 
Neufchatel and Bris of France, are among the more 
noted, all of which are, however, successfully imitated 
in this country, those sold under these names although 
usually of American manufacture are perhaps equally good 



54 CHERRIES — CHESTNUT. 

and frequently very difficult to distinguish from the im- 
ported. In 1872, it is estimated that 2,000,000 pounds 
of Limberg cheese were made and sold in this country. 
Cheese itself, especially when taken in considerable quan- 
tities, is generally considered, and without doubt justly, 
to be difficult of digestion, but when taken in small 
quantities it is undoubtedly an aid to the digestion of 
other and especially rich varieties of food. It accord- 
ingly forms a very proper accompaniment to dessert. 
The amount of cheese produced annually in the United 
States is about 200,000,000 of pounds, much the larger 
portion of which is made in factories, of which there are 
upward of two thousands. 

Cherries, the fruit of many different trees belonging to 
the Rose family, genus Prunus. Cultivated cherries are 
of many varieties and come from two distinct species, 
(^Prunus aviura and P. vulgaris) both of which are found 
growing wild in the woods of England. Of the numerous 
varieties the Kentish or early Kichmond, May Duke, Gov. 
Wood, Purple Guigne, Morello and late Kentish are 
among the most valuable. Cherries are a very useful 
dessert fruit, and are dried and canned extensively, and 
are also used in the manufacture of a variety of hquors. 

Chestnut, {Castanea vesca) a very handsome tree 
found in Europe, Asia and North America. The tree at- 
tains a great size, reaching the height of sixt}^ or eighty 
feet in fifty or sixty years. Its timber is very valuable 
and used for many purposes. The wood makes excellent 
casks and in this country is used in the manufacture of 
cigar boxes. The nuts are enclosed in a hard and prick- 
ly four-valved involucre ; these burs contain from one to 



CHICORY. 55 

tkree edible nuts, often compressed or flattened on one or 
both sides. Chestnuts form an important article of food 
in some parts of France, and in many of the mountainous 
regions of Europe where wheat cannot be raised. The 
nuts are eaten either steamed, boiled or roasted ; they are 
sometimes kiln-dried so as to preserve them for seasons of 
scarcity. Ground and reduced to a powder they make 
good bread, and highly washed they make a good substi- 
tute for chocolate. A chestnut tree on Mt. Etna is said 
to be 200 feet in circumference ; and one in France is 
over 1,000 years old and is still very productive. The 
fruit of the American Chestnut is smaller than that of the 
Spanish and the kernels much sweeter. With us the 
chestnut flowers in June and fruits in October. 

Chicory or Succory, (Cichorium Intyhus) a plant 
belonging to the same family as the dandelion, and grow- 
ing wild in most parts of Europe and especiall}^ in Eng- 
land. In some parts of the latter country it is cultivated 
and when well grown the roots resemble large white car- 
rots. The jdeld per acre is from three to five tons. It is 
naturalized in this country and grows along the fences in 
fields and roads. It grows to the height of from one to 
three feet and bears quite a handsome blue flower. The 
root is the part for which it is cultivated, and is used as a 
substitute for coffee, and for adulterating it when roasted. 
After being dug the roots are washed and cut into pieces 
about half an inch in length and placed in a kiln to dry, 
after which it is placed in a revolving cylinder with the 
addition of a little butter and roasted the same as coffee. 
Its use in England is legahzed for the adulteration of cof- 
fee but the packages must be marked mixture of coffee 



56 CHOCOLATE. 

and chicory. Notwithstanding its cheapness, chicory 
itself is adulterated with can^ots, turnips, oak bark tan, 
mahogany, sawdust, etc. B}- a chemical analysis, it has 
been found that chicory has but few of the quahties of 
coffee, and when used alone is often very deleterious to 
the system. In the year 1875, there were imported of 
chicory in its various forms 4,561,545 pounds at an aver- 
age, value of about four cents per pound. 

CliOCOlate, a substance used as a beverage and pre- 
pared from the seeds of the cacoa, {Theobroma eacoa,) 
a tree native of South America, Mexico, and the West 
Indies. The tree is an evergeen and grows to the height 
of from twelve to sixteen feet. The fruit of the cacoa 
resembles a cucumber and is five or six inches in length, 
and about three in diameter, and contains twenty to forty 
beans, arranged in five rows in the pinkish white pulp. 
Their size is about that of the sweet almond. The fruit 
matures for gathering in June and December. It is at first 
of a dark green color, and duU red on the side next the 
sun ; but as they ripen the green turns yellow and the 
dull red becomes more bright and hvely. They do not 
all ripen at once, but for three weeks or a month in a 
season. The overseers of the plantations go every day 
to cut those that are turned yellow ; they are then laid in 
heaps till they have heated and are then opened by hand, 
the seeds extracted and spread out on mats in the sun to 
dry. Before the Spaniards landed in Mexico, the natives 
made a sort of beverage of the seeds and flavored with 
allspice or vanilla. From them the S^Daniards introduced 
it into Europe. The Mexicans called this drink chocalat 
from which we derive om* word chocolate. In manufac- 



CIDER. 57 

turing chocolate the beans are slightly rosted in an iron 
cylinder similar to that used in roasting coffee. After 
roasting they are cooled, freed from their husks by sifting 
and fanning. They are then reduced to a paste by trit- 
uration, at a temperature of 130° F., in a mortar or a 
mill, and the paste is then mixed with from one half to 
equal quantities of sugar and a small quantity of vanilla 
bean added for flavoring ; the proper temperature having 
been observed, it is turned into moulds and formed into 
cakes and rolls of various shapes. Chocolate is used in so- 
lution with hot water as a breakfast beverage. The addi- 
tion of milk does not injure but rather improves its quality. 
Good chocolate is smooth, firm, soluble, aromatic, not 
viscid after having been boiled and cooled, but oily 
on the surface and leaves no sediment. Chocolate is 
often adulterated with rice meal, oat meal, flour, potato 
starch, roasted hazel nuts, etc. All of. these adultera- 
tions may be determined by means of the microscope. 
The cacao nibs of commerce are the bruised and broken 
seeds of the cacao, but the mass is more difficult of 
solution than chocolate. Cacoa shells, improperly spelled 
cocoa, is the thin shell or pelhcle that covers the beans, 
and which is separated before they are ground and pow- 
dered. These shells are used as a substitute for choco- 
late and are preferred by many. In the year 1875, there 
was imported in this country, cacoa, in the form of crude, 
leaves and shells, 5,216,556 pounds, valued at $583,011. 
jBroma, is the name given to a certain preparation of 
chocolate. 

Cider. This is the juice of the apple, either unferment- 
ed or fermented, and is largely manufactured in this 



58 CIGARS. 

country and Europe. The process of manufacture is very 
simple. The apples are ground in a mill, the pulp sub- 
jected to pressure, and the expressed juice is stored a- 
way in barrels ; its further treatment being similar to that 
of wine. Vinous fermentation converts the sugar of the 
juice into alcohol. Fermented cider contains from 5 to 10 
per cent, of alcohol, and is intoxicating in its qualities. 
New or sweet cider is often boiled to a thin syrup, which 
may be preserved in bottles for a long time. With us 
cider is largel}^ used in the manufacture of vinegar, and 
is the essential element in the manufacture of fruit butter. 
It is also said to be converted into champagne and sold 
for the imported article. 

Cigars. A small roll of tobacco used for smoking. In 
the manufacture of cigars, the tobacco is fii'st dampened 
in a trough, so that the water can run off. The first pro- 
cess is stemming the fillers, which is done by removing 
the midiib from the smaller and inferior leaves, the larger 
and whole ones being used for wrappers, and are stem- 
med in a similar manner. Cigars are composed of two 
parts ; the wrapper and filler. The former must be a 
perfect, smooth leaf, while the latter is simply the pieces 
which are made into a bundle, and forms the mterior of 
the cigar. In hand made cigars, the operation is essen- 
tially as follows ; takmg a leaf in his hand, the workman 
spreads it out before him on a table, smoothing it care- 
fulty to remove all creases ; then with his knife he cuts it 
into a peculiar, nearly semicircular shape. He then picks 
up the material for his filhng in his left hand, making it 
into a kind of bundle ; this operation requfres considera- 
ble experience to get the right amount. As soon as he 



CIGARS. 61) 

has enough leaves, he presses them together and lays them 
on the wrapper before him. Then by a peculiar sort of 
twist, he brings up the edges of the latter, and with a 
quick roll envelopes the loose bundle ; the form of the 
cigar is at once apparent. He now finishes off the end 
for the mouth, by carefully trimming the leaf, and smooth- 
ing it to a point; fastening the extremity with a httle 
paste ; the other end he cuts off smooth ; a ' few more 
rolls between his flat knife and the table, and the cigar is 
done. A good workman will make from 200 to 400 in a 
day. After the cigars are finished they are sorted by 
workmen into different lots according to their color, or 
strength, each grade being known by a specific name, viz : 

Madura. 

Madura Colorado. 

Colorado. 

Colorado Clare. 

Claro. 
Madura is the darkest and strongest, and the Claro the 
lightest and mildest. Flor, applied to cigars means " flow- 
er," or the best of tobacco ; below this comes bueno, good, 
and superior. A concha is a short, thick cigar. JE span- 
ado takes its name from the ribbons with which it is tied, 
being red at the end of the bundles and yellow in the 
middle, making the colors of the Spanish (Espanol) flag. 
Partagos, are a long cigar. Regalia^ indicates a large 
sized cigar, finely made, and usually high priced. In re- 
gard to the filling, they are said to be long fillers, or 
scraps ; Havana fillers from Havana tobacco. 

Cigars are also made by machinery. A machine cuts 
the tobacco into wads of cigar length from a chute filled 



60 CINNAMON. 

with leaves ; these are pressed into moulds, and after- 
ward wrapped by machinery. The tip is finished sepa- 
rately, and the end cut square off. . Cigars are adulterated 
by using other material than tobacco, such as various 
kinds of leaves and brown straw paper. In using the 
latter, it is soaked in the juice of tobacco stems and other 
waste, rolled, veined and printed with spots to imitate the 
natural leaf ; in this state it is used both for fillers and 
wrappers. It is said this paper tobacco is shipped to 
Havana, where it is converted into cigars and returned to 
this country as genuine Havana cigars. Cigarettes are 
smaU cigai'S, or fine tobacco rolled in paper. 

Cinnamon. True cinnamon is produced by Oinna- 
momum Teglonicum, a member of the Laurel family, a 
tree twenty to thirty feet high and twelve to eighteen 
inches in diameter. It is a native of Ceylon, but is now 
cultivated in South America and the West Indies. The 
whole plant has the same aromatic properties that is 
found in the bark ; the root fields camphor by distilla- 
tion. The bark is obtained from the branches of four 
or five years growth, and of from one half an inch to 
three inches in diameter. The bark is removed from the 
branches by making longitudinal incisions, and is then 
taken off in strips. The strips are placed one above the 
other in parcels eight or ten inches thick and allowed to 
ferment by which process the pelhcle and green bark 
are easilj^ removed and the inner bark remains. As this 
dries in the sun, it rolls up in the form of quills, the 
smaller being packed into the larger. Good cinnamon is 
known by the thinness of the bark, the thinner and more 
pliable the finer the quality ; when it is broken the frac- 



CITRON — CLAMS. 61 

ture is splintery. The tree is raised from the seed and 
produces bark in five or six years. Two crops are gath- 
ered in a year, one in May and June, and one in November, 
These trees sometimes attain the age of two hundred 
years. Most of what is sold for cinnamon, in our 
markets, is simply cassia. The amount of true cinnamon 
consumed in the United States for the year ending June 
30, 1875, was valued at $4,013 while that of cassia was 
$279,250 or nearly seventy times the amount of cin- 
namon. 

Citron, the citron of our shops is the preserved fruit 
of Citrus medica, a tree closely related to the orange and 
lemon. The citron is a native of Asia, but is extensive- 
1}^ cultivated in Southern Europe. The fruit is frequent- 
ty as much as six inches long, ovate, uneven on the sur- 
face, and with a protuberance on the top. The curing 
of the citron is briefly as follows : it is first pickled to ex- 
tract the bitter flavor and absorb the oil, then boiled and 
placed in a solution of sugar until it becomes saturated, 
when it is placed on racks to dry. It is then packed in 
thin boxes for the market, known as quarter and half 
boxes. There are a number of varieties of citron, and 
the fruit of some reach the weight of twenty pounds. In 
its native country it is constantly in bloom, and fruit and 
flowers are found hanging on the trees together. 

Clams, a name affixed to many bivalve mollusks of 
different genera. The common clam of the United States, 
(My a arenaria) is much used for food, and is considered 
one of the greatest dehcacies furnished us by the sea. 
It is dug from the sands of the shore, between the limits 
of high and low water, being usually found at a depth of 



62 CLOVER SEED. 

from six to eighteen inches. It is found also in Europe 
and Asia, and upon the shores of Alaska. The round 
clam, or quahaug ( Venus mercenaria) is also largely used 
for food, but is much inferior to the preceding. The clam 
loses, to a great degree, its dehcacy of flavor by an}' meth- 
od of preservation, and is consequently^ rarety shipped or 
used, otherwise than firesh &om its sandy bed. They are 
however, to some extent, put up in cans, shipped in cold 
weather and sold in our markets. 

Clover Seed, seeds of the plants of the genus Trifol- 
ium, of the order Leguminoseee, including numerous 
species, several of which are common and very valuable. 
All of the species have herbaceous, more or less procum- 
bent stems, with trifohate leaves, and flowers borne in 
roundish heads, or oblong spikes, and seeds in pods con- 
taining one and rarety three or four seeds each. The 
most important and valuable species is the common red 
clover (TrifoUum pratense) a native of Europe, but 
which is gi'own extensively in all temperate chmates, as 
a forage plant. The seed should be sown in very early 
spring usually in connection with some cereal crop as 
wheat, barley, oats, etc., when it will furnish a fuU crop 
the second year. This is cut first when in fuU bloom in 
June for forage when a second gi'owth comes rapidly for- 
ward and ripens its seeds in September. The first crop if 
allowed to ripen, rarely produces any seed and is much 
injured for forage. Clover has in recent years acquired 
additional importance from its v^alue when plowed under 
as a means of preparing the soil for the growth of wintei 
wheat. 

White clover {TrifoUum repens) is a native of America, 



CLOYES — COCOANUT. 63 

and is found in fields and open woods everjrwhere. It is 
invaluable for pasturage and mixed with grasses is ex- 
ceedingly desirable for lawns. It is also one of the most 
valuable of honey producing plants. Alsike clover 
( Trifolium Hyhridum) has recently been introduced into 
this country from the south of Sweden and has attracted 
much attention. Buffalo clover {Trifolium rejlexum) na- 
tive of our western plains is worthy of greater attention. 

Cloves, are the dried unexpanded fruit buds of a small 
tree, the Carophyllus aromaticus of naturalists. It is a 
native of the Moluccas but now cultivated all over the 
East Indies, and also in the West Indies, Guiana and 
Brazil. The flower buds are gathered by hand or beaten 
with rods so as to fall upon cloths which are placed under 
the trees to receive them ; they are either dried in the sun 
or by the heat of a fire. They are slightly smoked so as 
to give them a uniform brown color. The fruit, which is 
a dry berry, also contains aromatic properties and appears 
in market under the name, mother cloves. Water ex- 
tracts the odor of cloves, with comparatively little of their 
taste. The aromatic qualities of cloves depend on an es- 
sential oil which may be obtained by distillation with 
water, and is sold as the oil of cloves. The value of the 
cloves consumed in the United States for the year ending 
June 30, 1875, was $ 213,965, and the number of pounds 
was 1,235,572. 

Cocoa-nut, the fruit of the Cocos nucifera, a tree of the 
palm family, and one of nature's richest gifts to man. 
Without this tree the islands of the Pacific Ocean would 
be uninhabited, and the uncivilized races of the tropics 
would be left to perish of hunger and thirst, without cloth- 



64 COD. 

ing or shelter. The tree delights in regions bordering the 
sea shore, and attains the height of 60 or 100 feet or more, 
with a crown of leaves at the surmnit. Every part of the 
tree is useful to the natives. It furnishes them with their 
food, with cooking utensils, their dwelhngs, their clothing, 
their medicines, their ornaments and their drinks. The 
fruit is a very important product of this tree. When it 
acquires full size it is filled with a white hquid, generally 
called milk, but which in reahty is the albumen in a hquid 
form. When the fruit has attained maturity, this milk is 
absorbed, or becomes hard, and forms the hard, white, 
solid albumen which we eat in this country. Each tree 
fields from 80 to 100 nuts yearly and will continue to bear 
during two generations of men. 

Desiccated cocoa-nut is the prepared albumen of this 
nut ; water, sugar and carbonate of soda being used in its 
preparation, the process being a patent. It is put up in 
packages and sold as shelf goods. It is largely used in 
making puddings and pies. 

Macerated cocoa-nut is prepared from the same fruit 
by boiling till in a semi-fluid state, and seahng in cans. 
It is used for the same purposes as the above. 

Cod, a genus of soft rayed fishes belonging to the fam- 
ily gadidae, characterized by an elongated smooth body, 
compressed towards the tail ; three dorsal fins ; ventral 
fins pointed ; abdominal hue white ; two fins behind the 
vent ; the lower jaw with one barbule on the chin. In 
North America there are found eight species. The Amer- 
ican cod {Marrhua Americana) is found along the New 
England coast from New York to the St. Lawrence Riv- 
er. The color of the back in the living fish is a light ol- 



COD. 65 

ive green, becoming pale ash in dead specimens, covered 
with niunerous reddish or yellowish spots ; the lower part 
being a dusky white, but the colors of the species vary 
considerably. They sometimes reach a weight of over 
one hundred pounds, their average weight being about 
eight pounds. The common or bank, cod (M. vulgaris) 
well known as an article of food is taken on the Grand 
bank, in the deep water off the coasts of New Foundland, 
Nova Scotia, and Labrador. It is a thick, heavy fish 
sometimes reaching a weight of 90 pounds. The color 
varies considerably but is generally a greenish brown, 
fading into ash in the dead fish, with numerous reddish 
yellow spots ; the belly is silvery opaque white, the fins 
pale green and the lateral line dead white. The torn cod 
is a small species, found along the coast from New York 
to New Brunswick. It is caught from wharves and 
bridges, by almost any bait ; it is from 6 to 12 inches in 
length. The cod is abundant along the North Pacific 
coast, especially in the region of Alaska. It is also plen- 
tiful on the west and north shores of Norway and Sweden, 
and on the south-west of Iceland. It is an exceedingly 
voracious fish, devouring indiscriminately ever3''thing in 
its way in the shape of small fish, crustacese, etc. 

The cod is very prolific, and specimens of the female 
have been caught with upwards of 8,000,000 eggs ; but 
as only a small portion of these are fertihzed and a still 
smaller portion ever reaches maturity, the numbers remain 
about stationary. The cod is of slow growth and is about 
three years of age before it begins to propagate. The ex- 
hausting of the cod fisheries is a question of much inter- 
est ; but as yet there is no perceptible decrease in the 



eQ COD. 

bank fisheries after three and a half centuries ceaseless 
fishing. But it is claimed that at certain points in the 
shore fisheries there is beginning to be a scarcity of the 
fish. These fish are not migrative as was once supposed, 
but merel}^ move from the feeding to the spawning 
grounds, and from deep to shallow w^ater. It seems that 
the cod fives in colonies in certain places adapted to them 
and here they five and die without mixing with the ad- 
joining colonies. In fact the peculiarities of the fish en- 
able it to be told from what particular locahty it is caught. 
Cod fishing is an important branch of industry; the 
cured fish finding a ready sale in aU parts of the world. 
The gTeat resort of the American, Nova Scotian and 
French fishermen is the Grand Bank of New Foundland, 
and the banks east and south-east of Nova Scotia ; the 
most western of these banks being known specifically as 
the Western Bank. Massachusetts ranks first in its cod 
fisheries, Maine coming next. Gloucester is the gTeat 
fishing port of the country. South-east of Massachusetts 
is a fishing bank known as George's Bank, from which 
we derive our Georgia Bank cod. The cod is taken by 
means of a hook and fine, and on favorable occasions a 
single man will take from 300 to 400 in a day. Most of 
the Massachusetts vessels use trawls which are set and 
hauled periodically. The trawl consists of a long line, 
anchored and buoyed at each end, with hooks, generally 
several hundred in number, adjusted at intervals. The 
trawlers use fresh bait, herring, mackerel, or squid. 
The hand-hners use salted clams for the first part of the 
season, but afterwards obtain squid. The fish when 
brought aboard the vessel are dressed and sealed in the 



COD. 67 

hold. Upon arrival home they are taken out, washed and 
dried on flakes or platforms of wickerwork on the shore. 
The process of dressing them is reduced to a system, and 
is performed with great rapidity. The throater, usually 
a boy, cuts the throats and rips them open ; the header 
removes the entrails and the head ; the splitter splits the 
fish, removing a portion of the back bone ; while the Salt- 
er piles them in tiers and sprinkles them with salt. The 
dried fish are sold by the quintal of 112 pounds. Codfish 
are sometunes cured by being kept in a pile for two or 
thi'ee months, after salting, in a dark room, covered with 
salt grass, after which they are opened and again piled in 
a compact mass for. about the same length of time. They 
are then known as dun fish, from their color, and are 
highly esteemed. From the liver of the cod, oil is obtained, 
which is useful in pulmonary complaints. The tongue 
and sounds are frequently preserved in pickles. From the 
sounds, preserved and dried, isinglass is obtained. 

Boneless Cod is a form prepared for market by taking 
out the bones, and packing them in boxes, in strips or in 
rolls. Much of this form of fish is inferior in quality and 
consists of the hake and haddock, fish closely related 
to the cod. Dried haddock may be distinguished from 
the cod by its lateral line being black, that of the cod be- 
ing white. The number of persons engaged in the cod 
fisheries in the United States is from 12,000 to 15,000, and 
in Canada and New Foundland from 40,000 to 50,000. 
The quantity of cured cod brought in by American ships 
for the year ending June 30, 1875, was 756,543 cwt., 
valued at $3,664,496. The fishing grounds on the high 
seas are free to all nations, but the coast and river fish- 
eries are regulated by special treaties. 



68 COFFEE. 

Coflfee, the name ai)plied to the seeds of the plant Cof- 
fea Arabica, and also to the beverage prepared from the 
infusion of the seeds in boihng water. It is a native of 
Abj'ssinia where the plant gTows wild in great profusion 
and has been in use from remote times. It is now nat- 
urahzed in many tropical countries. The coffee-produc- 
iiig region is widely distributed, the principal countries 
being Brazil, Java, Ce3-lon, SumatTa, the western coast 
of India, Arabia, Ab^'ssinia, the West Indies, Central 
America, Venezuela, Guiana, Peru, Boh via, Mexico and 
some of the Pacific Islands. The plant is an evergreen, 
with opposite, shining leaves, and white, fragTant flowers, 
which grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves. It 
reaches a height of 20 feet, but in cultivation is kept down 
to about five feet, b}^ pruning, to increase its productive- 
ness, and for convenience in gathering the fruit. The 
plants are raised from seed in nurseries, and when a year 
old are transplanted and set out in rows. The}- begin to 
bear fruit at three years of age, but do not acquire ma- 
turity till the fifth year ; the trees continue in bearing for 
twenty years. Where the chmate is dry abundant irri- 
gation is necessary, and the water is shut off as the fruit 
begins to ripen as its quahty is thereby improved. The 
coffee tree blooms for eight months in the j^ear, so that 
the ripe coffee may be gathered at almost any season ; 
but the real harvests are two and sometunes three in the 
course of a year. The fruit when rii3e becomes red and 
finally purple. It much resembles our red cherry, and 
the fleshy portion surrounding the seeds is sweet and 
palatable. Each berry contains two seeds ; the flat sides 
are o]pposed to each other in the centre of the pulp and 



COFFEE. 69 

are separated by it and by the tough membrane which 
closely envelopes them both. Sometimes one seed is 
abortive and the remaining one then becomes round. As 
the fruit dries the pulp forms a sort of shell or pod, 
which is removed b}^ a process of curing in order to pre- 
pare the seed for market. In the West Indies the fruit 
is picked by hand at intervals during the seasons of har- 
vest ; but in Arabia where no rains prevail which would 
beat it from the trees, it is allowed to remain till nearly 
ready to fall, and is then shaken off upon cloths spread 
upon the ground ; its perfect ripeness may be one reason 
of its superior quality. In the West Indies and South 
America the curing is usually performed by exposing a 
layer of fruit several inches in thickness to the heat of 
the sun so that fermentation takes place. When the moist- 
ure has disappeared the dried fruit is passed between 
wooden rollers, and sometimes pounded in wooden mor- 
tars, and the pulp is then washed away. The tough 
membrane is separated after the seeds are dry, by a sim- 
ilar process, with a pair of heavy rollers. The chaff is 
next removed by winnowing. The following is a de- 
scription of the gathering of the crop in Ceylon. 

' ' In the height of the crop the fruit is taken to the 
pulping-mill at mid-day, and again in the evening. The 
task given to the Coohe is to bring a bushel of berries at 
each collection. From good bearing coffee trees, some 
quick hands will gather as much as four bushels a day, for 
which, of course, they get extra pay. The cherries are very 
much hke our cherries, and it would puzzle most people 
to distinguish a heap of coffee berries from the edible 
fruit. Instead of the stone, as in our cheny, the coffeQ 



70 COFFEE. 

fruit contains two seeds. These coffee beans are envel- 
oped in a thick, leather}^ skin which gets the name of 
parchment. After the thick pulp has been removed, the 
seeds are left in a cistern till such time as fermentation 
sets in ; the mucilage is easily w^orked off, and the coffee is 
then in a fit state to be carried to the drying gTound. 
The dr3ing of the coffee is a most important process ; a 
shower of rain will discolor the bean, and depreciate its 
value much. A constant watch must therefore be kept 
for the signs of rain clouds, and dreadful is the noise and 
hurry when such appear and threaten in a few minutes 
to break over the precious parchment coffee on the bar- 
becues. When thoroughly dried the parchment is put in- 
to the bushel bags and dispatched to Colombo. It there 
undergoes another drying preparatory to being relieved 
of its husk, which is done by being placed in circular 
troughs, where heavy rollers touch the coffee sufficiently 
to break the skni without injuring the bean. The coffee 
is then sized, that is, the large beans, the medium size, 
and the small are separated. This is done for the sake of 
having an equable roasting. A small bean would be 
burnt into charcoal by the time a large one was sufficient- 
ly roasted. This is a very important point and much 
care is given it by the Colombo merchant who undertakes 
this part of the preparation for market. The quality of 
the coffee depends very much on the district, and the el- 
evation at which it has been grown. The greater the el- 
evation, the finer the quahty. Maturalto has long been 
famous for the superior quaUty of its coffee, and the plan- 
tations are all upwards of 4,000 feet above the sea level.** 
The use of coffee was introduced into Persia from Ethi- 



COFFEE. 71 

opia as early as A. D. 785, and into Arabia from Persia 
about the fifteenth century. In 1554 it is said to have 
been publicly sold in Constantinople and reached Venice in 
1615. The first coffee-house was opened in London, in 
1652, by a servant of a Turkey merchant, and at the 
close of the centur}', the annual consumption of coflfee 
reached to one hundred tons. Its culture was introduced 
into Java by the Dutch between 1680 and 1690, and it was 
then extended throughout the East Indian islands. In 
1720, it was introduced into Martinique, where it succeed- 
ed so well that in a few years all the West Indies could be 
supphed. In some places an infusion of the raw coffee is 
used as a beverage, but the general custom is to have it 
roasted, which developes its aromatic properties. The ob 
ject therefore of roasting is not onl}^ to render it friable, 
so as to be easily ground, but to create or develope this 
aromatic, volatile oil, and care is required to limit the 
operation so that the good effect of the latter may not be 
destroyed by burning the substance of the bean. The 
roasting is effected by placing a quantity of coffee in an 
iron cylinder, which is slowly turned round over a fire so 
that all the beans may in turn be exposed to the same 
heat. The natural color of the bean is a dull pale green ; 
(coffee beans are often artificially colored and polished to 
improve their appearance) but it acquires three colors in 
roasting, yellowish brown, chestnut brown and black. 
The first is not considered sufficient, and induces a loss 
of 12J per cent, in the weight, and the loss is increased 
in the chestnut brown to 20 per cent., and in the black 
to about 23 per cent; 112 pounds of raw, when fairly 
roasted, will 3'ield 92 pounds of roasted coffee. 



''} : : : ^.o 



72 COFFEE. 

The composition of raw coffee is as follows : 
Caffeine, - - - - 0.8 

Casein or legumin, _ - _ 13.0 

Gum and sugar, - - - 15.5 

Fat and volatile oil, - - - 13.0 

Mineral matter, - - -. - 6.7 

Coffeo-tannic acid, 
Coffeic acids, 
Wood}' Fibre, - - - 34.0 

Water, .... 12.O 

Roasted coffee contains about 1 -per cent, of caffeine 
and a small propoiiion of volatile oil and tannin. The 
proper degTee of roasting is that of a chesnut brown, and 
when the color approaches to a black it gives a bm-nt, 
dr}' flavor to the infusion. After roasting, coffee dete- 
riorates b}^ exposm^e to the air, and should be kept in 
tight cans. It maj be injured bj' absorbing the odor of 
other substances, and even raw coffee is hable to be 
damaged in the same wa}^ ; a few bags of pepper have 
been known to spoil a whole cargo of coffee. It is a sin- 
gular fact, that the same pecuhar principle is found in the 
three gTeat beverages of the woild, ^^-iz. tea, coffee and choc- 
olate, and the same principle is recognized in those plants 
used as a substitute for tea. This seems to suggest that 
it has a pecuhar adaptation to the wants of the human 
system. In coffee this principle is called caffeine, in tea, 
theine, and in chocolate theo-bromine. 

The annual consumption of coffee in England is about 
one pound per head ; in the United States, eight pounds, 
and in Holland and German}-, it is fomteen pounds. 
The best coffee of commerce is the Mocha, and next to 



COFFEE. 73 

this the Java. Mocha coffee is brought from Arabia ; 
the seed is small, yellowish, and often almost round, 
which is caused by the frequent abortion of one of the 
two seeds, the one that is left assuming the shape of the 
berry. It is packed in large bales, each containing a 
number of smaller ones, and when good appears fresh 
and of a gTeenish ohve color. Much of the coffee sold 
under the name of Mocha is produced in the East Indies 
and Brazil ; it is sent to Mocha and then reshipped as 
the genuine article. It is estimated that one half of the 
coffee exported from Brazil, is consumed in Europe as 
Java, Ceylon, Martinique, St. Domingo and Mocha. 
Prof. Agassiz sa3^s of the coffee of Brazil : ' ' More than 
half of the coffee consumed in the world is of Brazihan 
growth ; and yet the coffee of Brazil has little reputation 
and is even undervalued. Why is this ? Simply because 
a gi'eat deal of the best produce of Brazilian plantations 
is sold under the name of Java or Mocha, or as the cof- 
fee of Martinique or Bourbon. Martinique produces 
only six hundred sacks of coffee annually. Graudaloupe 
whose coffee is sold under the name of the neighboring 
island, yields six thousand sacks, not enough to supply 
the markets of Rio de Janeiro for twenty four hours, and 
the island of Bourbon hardly more. A great deal of the 
coffee which is bought under these names or under that 
of Java, is Brazilian, while the so called Mocha coffee is 
often nothing but the small, round beans of the Brazilian 
plant found at the summits of the branches and very care- 
fully selected. 

Java coffee is distinguished into the pale j^ellow, which 
is new and cheapest, and the brown, which is old and more 



74 



COFFEE. 



valuable. The seeds of the Java are of good size, and 
the sutui'e quite large. At the Centennial exhibition in 
Philadelphia, coffee from Brazil was exhibited as ' ' Imi- 
tation Java," which is the kind commonl}^ sold in our 
markets ; it difi'ered materially from the Java coffee on 
exhibition from the Dutch East Indies. Bourbon coffee 
is larger and not so round as the Mocha. Martinique^ is 
large, long, and of a gTeenish color, covered with a sil- 
very skin which comes off in roasting. St. Domingo 
coffee is very kregular, has rarelj' any skin covering it, 
and is of a pale gTeen or whitish color. In the commer- 
cial quotations, a large number of coffees are quoted by 
names apphed to them according to the port from which 
they are shipped, or the countrj^in which the}' are raised. 
Brazihan coffi^e is generally sold as Bio and is connnonly 
divided into the following gTades ; Fancy, Choice, Prime, 
Good, Fair, Ordinar}' and Common. 

The total amount of coffee imported into the United 
States in 1875 was 317,970,665 lbs., and its value was 
$50,591,488. The consumption of coffee for the same 
year was 317,017,309 lbs., valued at $ 50,414,320. 

The chief countries from which coffee was imported into 
the United States in 1875, were as follows : 



COUN1RIE8. 


POUNDS, 


VALUE. 


PRINCIPAL POETS OF 
EXPORT. 


Brazil, 


229,701,637 


$ 35,099,274 Rio Janeiro. 


Venezuela, 


25,781,256 


4,498,140 Lag-uvra and Maracaibo. 


Dutch East Indies, 


16,883,358 


3,2.58,121 Batavia. 


Central Amer. States, 


11,932,157 


1,885,631 San Juan de Nicaragua. 


Havti, 


9,545,410 


1,584,484 Santa Dom. & P't au Prince. 


U. S. of Colombo, 


5,446,992 


950,976 Cartagena. 


British "W. I. and Brit. 








Bond., 


3,433,250 


528,517 


Kingston and Truxillo. 


Dutch W. I. and Dutch 








Guiana, 


3,295,401 


597,967 


Paramaribo. 


British East Indies, 


3,113,381 


519,776 


Acheen and Colombo. 


Mexico, 


2,691,889 


485,489 


Vera Cruz. 



COFFEE EXTRACT CONFECTIONERY. 75 

Coffee Extract. A preparation largely sold to be 
used in connection with coffee. The compounds are gen- 
erally patented, and one we had analyzed was composed 
of chicory, bui'nt bran and molasses. A genuine extract 
of coffee may be prepared from an infusion of coffee, but 
the patent compounds lack the genuine article. 

Confectionery, a term of wide significance and embrac- 
ing all preparations which have sugar for their basis or 
principal ingredient. Under this definition would come 
fruits preserved in sugar, jams, jelhes, pastes, etc. ; but 
we can here only notice the branches of the manufacture 
of sugar preparations, such as lozenges, comfits, etc., 
which now constitute an extensive industry. The sim- 
plest form in which sugar is prepared as a sweet for eat- 
ing is in the form of a lozenge. They are prepared from 
refined sugar, ground to a very fine powder, mixed with 
dissolved gum, and flavored with essential oils, or other 
ingredients. In the making of these lozenges on a large 
scale the operations are somewhat similar to those used 
in biscuit making. The fine loaf sugar is ground to an 
almost impalpable powder between a pair of millstones, 
after which it is mixed with dissolved gum-arabic suffi- 
cient to form a very stiff dough, and the whole is then 
thoroughly mixed by machinery. The doughy mass is 
then reduced to a uniform cake by repeatedl}' passin«g 
pieces backward and forward between a pair of heavy 
metal rollers, the surfaces being kept from adhering by be- 
ing dusted with starch flour. The cake is then transfer- 
red to a piece of tough wet paper, and passed by an inter- 
mittent motion under a frame of cutters of the size and 
forai of the lozenge to be formed. These punch out and 



76 CONFECTIONERY. 

take up the lozenges, and when the tube of the cutters is 

well filled, the whole frame is turned over and the cut loz- 
enges emptied into a tray. The trays are then placed in 
heated apartments, and the lozenges allowed to harden 
These lozenges are colored and flavored with a great va- 
riety of ingredients which are added in proper portions 
with the dissolved gum. 

Hard confections, or comfits, constitute the second lead- 
ing variety of confectionery. To make these a core or 
centre is necessary and may consist of some seed, or of a 
small lozenge. Around this centre successive layers of 
sugar are added till the requked size is attained. The 
cores are placed in large copper pans or vessels which are 
geared to revolve at an inchned angle, so that hj their 
revolution their contents keep constantly in motion, tum- 
bhng over each other. The copper pans are kept revolv- 
ing b}' steam or other power, and are kept hot b}' a steam 
jacket or double casing into which steam is admitted. A 
pure strained syrup of sugar is prepared, a quantity of 
which is periodically apphed to the contents of the pan as 
the}^ appear to get dry, and after receiving a certain coat- 
ing the comfits in process of manufacture are removed for 
some time and allowed to dry and harden. The comfits 
thus receive alternate coatmgs and dr^dngs, till they at- 
tain the proper size, when thej' are finished with a coating 
of thin sj'rup, which may be colored if required, and long 
friction in the pan. Thej are then hardened in a drjing 
apartment and are fit for use. For the core or centre of 
these comfits a great variet}^ of seeds is used, as al- 
monds, caraways, coriander, cloves, cassia, and perfum- 
ed cherry kernels. 



CONFECTIONERY. 77 

Sugar candy is prepared from a solution of sugar boiled 
to the point of crystallization. It may be prepared from 
either brown or refined sugar, to the latter cocMneal or 
some other coloring ingredient being added. These solu- 
tions, when boiled to a proper degree, are poured into 
moulds, across which at sufficient intervals are stretched 
pieces of strings. The sugar gradually crystallizes from 
its solution on the sides of the mould and on the strings — 
it being in the meantime kept in an apartment heated from 
90° to 100° F. When sufficiently deposited the remain- 
ing liquor is drained off, and the crystals removed and 
dried in a high, uniform heat. Sugar drops are made 
from fine sugar mixed with a small portion of water, 
and coloring and flavoring material as desired. The 
mixture is dissolved by heat but not allowed to boil, and 
is then poured in separate drops on a sheet of paper, on 
which they quickly set and harden. 

What is termed boiled sugar, that is sugar which has 
been boiled until coohng and hardening it assumes a glass}' 
appearance and fracture, is the basis of another variety 
of confectionery. Of this class barley sugar is the type 
and simplest example. It merely consists of sugar boiled 
as above indicated, flavored, cut into strips and rolled or 
twisted into sticks. Boiled sugar is prepared in various 
fancy forms by passing it while still in a viscid condition 
through small machines in which pairs of brass rollers 
having patterns sunk in the surface, stamp these patterns 
into the material. It is also worked up in the form of 
balls, plaited into coils, and formed into manj'-colored 
sticks, etc. Most of the candy now manufactured is 
largely adulterated with starch, plaster, etc. The color- 



78 COPPERAS — CRACKER. 

ing matter is cocMneal for red, and various dyes and pig- 
ments for the other colors, most of them being poisonous 
in their nature. 

Copperas, Green Titriol, the commercial names for 
the hj'drated protosulphate of ii'on (FeSO^ 7 H2O) . It 
occurs in pale gTeen prismatic crystals which are very sol- 
uble in water. It is largety used for d^^eing black and in 
the manufacture of common black writing ink ; and is al- 
so valuable as a disinfectant. It is usually produced by 
dissolving iron in dilute sulphuric acid, filtering and evap- 
orating the solution and setting it aside to crystallize. 
Large quantities are made in this waj from the refuse 
sulphuric acid which has been used in the refining of pe- 
troleum. It is also largely obtained from tlje oxidation 
of native sulphides of iron, or pjTites, which after being- 
roasted absorb oxygen spontaneously from moist air and 
are slowty converted into copperas. 

Coriander Seed. The fruit of CoHandum Sativum, 
a low annual plant of the south of Europe. It is of very 
easy cultivation, and is used for flavoring curries and 
other culiuar}^ preparations. In 1875 there were con- 
sumed in the United States 881,103 pounds of coriander 
and carawa}' seeds. 

Cracker, a hard biscuit. In the manufacture of plain 
and fancy biscuits, the operations are largety carried on 
by machinerj^ The mixing of the dough and water, the 
kneading, the rolhng out, the cutting and paiming, are 
all done by machinery' ; and in the patent ovens the bis- 
cuit is gradually carried through on a traveling stage. 
The rate at which biscuits of different sizes and degrees 
of richness must travel the whole length of the oven, va- 



CRANBERRY. 79 

ries from about 5 to 45 minutes, and the temperature of 
the oven is modified to suit the various qualities. There 
is an endless variety in the form and composition of plain 
and fancy biscuit. In the making of fancy biscuit, milk, 
eggs, sugar, butter or lard, and flavoring essences are 
extensively used, and in these cases the proportion of the 
various ingredients are roughl}^ mingled before being put 
in the mixer. In the richest class of biscuit the dough 
for which is necessarily soft, they are cut b}^ hand, and 
fired on trays in common ovens. Cracknells are made 
without either milk or water being used to mix the dough, 
eggs alone being employed for the purpose ; certain 
proportions of butter, sugar and sesquicarbonate of am- 
monia, are added to the mixture of flour and eggs, and 
the dough is baked in the usual way. Many other varie- 
ties of biscuits are rendered light and spongiform by the 
use of the sesqui-carbonate of ammonia or of carbonate 
of soda with sour milk. Many hundred kinds of plain 
and fancy biscuit are manufactured and named from the 
kind of flour used, or the flavoring, or as fancy may 
dictate. 

Cranberry, {Vacdnium Macrocarpum) is cultivated 
for its fruit, which is a small, red, acidberr}^ The plant 
is a shrub and grows best in lowlands where there is 
plenty of decayed organic matter. The cranbeny is al- 
most exclusively a northern plant. In northern Europe 
it has been highl}- appreciated for centuries, and immense 
quantities are annually brought into the English markets 
from Eussia and Sweden, in addition to those produced 
in Britain. The first settlers in this countr}- found such 
an abundance of cranberries that there was no necessity 



80 CRAW FISH. 

for cultivation ; but about 40 years ago the demand be- 
came so great that attention was turned to its cultivation. 
It is now extensivel}^ raised in the region of Cape Cod, 
Mass., in New Jerse}^ and in Wisconsin. The three va- 
rieties recognized in the markets are the cherry, bugle 
and bell varieties. The best of the cherry varieties are 
ver}^ dark colored. 

The soil requii-ed for cranberr}^ cultui'e is usuaU}^ found 
in low peat bogs, where the requisite amount of water 
can be apphed as necessary. A deep ditch is dug around 
the bed to drain off the water so that the gTound may be 
cleared. This is accomphshed by clearing off ah trees, 
logs, brush, etc., and burning them on the ground and 
scattering the ashes. Some cultivators remove all of the 
surface soil to the depth of six inches or a foot and fill 
in with sand. The whole bed is made level and is sui'- 
rounded by an embankment so that it can be flooded 
when necessar3\ After the plants are up, the bed must 
be kept clean for two or thi^ee seasons when the plants 
will be so thickly grown as to prevent other vegetation 
from springing up. The water is let on the beds at the 
approach of winter and should be deep enough to keep 
the plants from freezing. The fruit ripens in October 
and is sometimes gathered b}^ means of a rake, but is 
mostly picked b}^ hand. The berries are packed in crates 
and barrels and shipped to all parts of the country. 
Those shipped to Em^ope are packed in small kegs filled 
with water, or in bottles. The cranbeiTj can also be 
cultivated on the uplands and considerable experiments 
are being made in that dii'ection. 

Craw Fish, a species of Crustacea of the genus asta- 



CREAM OF TARTAR. 81 

cus, and resembling the lobster, but smaller. It is es- 
teemed as a very delicate food, and is eaten fresh or 
preserved by canning. 

Cream of Tartar, Acid Tartrate of Potassa, a com- 
pound existing already formed in the juice of the grape 
and in other vegetable juices. Its chemical composition 
is indicated by the formula K H C^ H^ Og. In the juice 
of the grape it is held in solution by the saccharine mat- 
ters present, but, as it is less soluble in alcohol, when 
the sugar is transformed into alcohol by the process of 
fermentation it is deposited in the casks forming an in- 
crustation upon the inside of the wine barrels, which, when 
removed, constitutes the argol or crude tartar of com- 
merce. Argol is imported from wine producing countries, 
the best coming from Italy and the south of France. It 
is the source from which we obtain tailaric acid and the 
various tartrates. Commercial argol contains from 5 to 
45 per cent of tartrate of hme and other impurities, in- 
cluding some of the coloring matter of the wine, render- 
ing it red or white according to the kind of wine from 
which it was deposited. It is refined by treatment with 
boihng water in which the cream of tartar dissolves and 
from which it crystalizes out upon cooling. It is then 
redissolved in water to which 4 or 5 per cent of pipe clay 
has been added to precipitate the impurities, after which 
the clear solution is drawn off and evaporated until crys- 
talhzation again takes place. Thus prepared, cream of 
tartar consists of colorless, rhombic crystals which usually 
contain from 2 to 5 per cent of tartrate of lime. It has 
a pleasant acid taste, and is quite freely soluble in water. 
It is quite extensively used in connection with bicarbon- 



82 CUCUMBER CURRANT. 

ate of soda as a substitute for jeast in bread raising. 
(See Baking Powder.) It is also used as a mordant in 
dyeing wool and to some extent in medicine. Cream of 
tartar as found in market is adulterated to a frightful de- 
gree. Prof. Chandler says, that in samples pm-chased 
from several gi'ocers in New York in 1872, flour, chalk, 
alum, sawdust, clay, g^^^sum and sulphate of potash, 
were found to have been used for this purpose. G^-psum 
was found in many cases in great quantity and of one 
sample constituted as much as 70 per cent. In samples 
analyzed for this work b}' Prof. Robert Kedzie of Lan- 
sing, Mich., over 79 per cent, of common plaster was 
present ; and this is the stuff sold for cream tartar ! 

Cucumber, {Cucumis sativus). Our common cucum- 
ber is a native of Middle and Southern Asia, and its cul- 
ture dates from earhest times. In the form of a pickle 
it is an important article of food in Europe and the 
United States. The small, young cucumbers made into 
pickles, are known as Gherkins. 

Currant, a name apphed to certain species of shmbs 
of the genus Ribes ; the name currant was apphed to them 
from their resemblance to the Zante currants. The red 
currant {Bihes ruhrum) is a native of Europe, Asia and 
North America, and is extensively cultivated for its pleas- 
ant acid juice. It is extensively used for the making of 
jeUies and conserves, and is often manufactured into wine. 
They are dried for market and also canned in the green 
state. The black currant is Rihes nigrum^ but it is not 
much cultivated as yet in this country. The number of 
varieties of currants in cultivation is very great ; they are 



CURRANTS CURRY. 83 

propagated by cuttings and are of easy culture. It flow- 
ers in April and fruits in June and July. 

Currants, (from Corinth in Greece) , a common name 
applied to the diied fruit of the Corinth grape. English 
or Zante currants are not true currants but a kind of 
small raisin, exported from Zante and the other Ionian 
Isles. They are simply dried in the sun on the ground, 
and then packed into casks. This accounts for the great 
quantity of foreign matter found among them. These 
currants are used in cooking as an ingredient in cakes and 
puddings. For the year ending 1875 there were- consum- 
ed in this country Zante currants and others, to the value 
of $771,384. 

Curry, Curry Powder, a very highly seasoned aro- 
matic condiment, which is in universal use in India and 
the East, but which varies in composition with each man- 
ufacturer. It is usually so strongly pungent as not to be 
greatly rehshed in temperate climates. Simmonds' Dic- 
tionary of Trade Products gives the following as the com- 
position of Ceylon curry : "A piece of green ginger, a few 
coriander and cardamom seeds, one dry capsicum pod, 
six or eight black pepper corns, two cloves of garlic, six 
small onions, half a cocoanut, half a lime, a small piece 
of turmeric, and half a dessert spoonful of butter, well 
mixed together." The following table contains five re- 
cipes for making curry : 



Turmeric, 

Black Pepper, . . 
Cayenne Pepper, 
Ginger root, . . . . 
Fenugreek, 



6 


4 


6 


3 


2 


5 


4 


2 


2 


^ 


1 


1 


. . . 


S 


6 




2 

2 


3 


1 


+ 


3 


i 



84 CUSK DATES. 



Cumin seeds, ... 
Coriander seeds, 
Cardamom seeds, 

Pimento, 

Cinnamon, 

Cloves, 

Nutmeg, 



Cusk, a fish belonging to the Cod family, characterized 
by an elongated body, a single dorsal fin extending the 
whole length of the back, fleshy ventral fins and one bar- 
bule at the chin. The American cusk is considered a dis- 
tinct species from the European. The length of the fish 
varies from two to three feet or more, and it weighs from 
four pounds upward. It is generally taken on the middle 
bank with the hook, by the deep water cod fishers. In 
spring it is seen in the Boston markets, when it is less 
esteemed than cod ; but in winter it brings a higher price. 
The European species, called tarsk or tusk, is plentiful 
among the Shetland Isles where it forms quite an article 
of trade. It is caught, salted and dried, in much the 
same manner as cod, to which it is considered superior. 

Dates, the fruit of the date palm {Phoenix Dactylifera) 
a tree growing native throughout the East and the great- 
er part of Northern Africa, and which is cultivated in 
Spain, Portugal, Italy and Sicily. The tree grows to a 
height of from toTtj to eighty feet, but is easily ascended 
as the trunk is covered with cavities, left where fallen leaf 
stalks have become deta ched, having horizontal even sur- 
faces, which form excellent rests for the hands and feet, 
making the tree as easy to climb as a ladder. The tree is 
dioecious, that is the male and female flowers occur upon 
separate individuals, and in Africa where the female trees 



DATES DANDELION. 85 

are cultivated, the natives gather male flowers from the 
wild date trees and shake them over the female flowers 
when at maturity, the pollen thus distributed rendering 
the female flowers fruitful. The tree comes into bearing 
when from six to ten years of age, each female tree yield- 
ing annually about an hundred pounds of fruit. 

There are many varieties of the fruit, varjdng much in 
size and quality. The fruit ripens in the tropics about 
the end of August, but in Spain and tlxe northern hmits 
of its cultivation, not until about Christmas. Dates form 
an extensive article of food in countries where it is native, 
many of the inhabitants of Persia, Arabia and Egj^pt 
subsisting almost entirely upon them. Upwards of two 
and a half millions of trees are registered and taxed in 
Egypt, where they constitute one of the important sources 
of revenue. The fruit is dried either in the sun or in ov- 
ens, and then buried in the sand for future use. They 
ma}^ be kept in this way for two or three years. They 
are prepared for market by pounding and pressing in 
large crates, in which form they are shipped, and form an 
extensive article of commerce. The tree furnishes many 
other articles of value. From the leaves are manufactur- 
ed baskets, brushes, mats, coverings for the roofs and 
walls of houses, and innumerable utensils ; the stem fur- 
nishes timber for houses, fuel, fences, etc. ; the fibres 
from the base of the leaves are spun into cordage, whilst, 
when the heart of the leaves is cut, there exudes a thick, 
hone3^-like juice which by fermentation produces wine or 
vinegar. 

Dandelion, a well-known plant of the order Compos- 
itae, with a perennial root and spreading, toothed leaves, 



86 EELS — ^EGGS 

which are sometimes bleached, and also used as a salad. 
Under cultivation the plants attain a large size, and are 
sold in the spring for a popular and much esteemed pot 
herb under the name of greens. The root is sometimes 
roasted and used as a substitute, or for the adulteration, 
of coffee. 

Eels, a name applied to many elongated fishes of more 
or less serpentine appearance, but properly belonging on- 
ly to members Ox"" the family AnguilUdoe, of which the 
type is the common fresh and salt water eel {Anguilla Bos- 
toniensis or A. vulgaris) . This species has many varie- 
ties, some of which are by many writers regarded as dis- 
tinct species. It inhabits both salt and fresh water, from 
the British provinces to the Gulf of Mexico, and is also 
found in European waters. It varies in length from 
twelve to thirty inches, is greenish or olive brown above 
and yellowish white beneath. It is a very voracious feed- 
er, preferring for its feeding grounds muddy bottoms and 
extensive flats and shallows near the shore, where it is 
taken in great numbers with hook and hue, by bobbing 
and spearing. In winter, eels bury themselves in the mud 
to a depth of about a foot, where they remain quite tor- 
pid, breathing scarcely at all, and taking no food until 
spring. While in this condition they are speared in great 
numbers, through holes cut in the ice. They are fine-fla- 
vored and make an excellent article of food, but from 
their snake-like appearance (though the resemblance is 
onl}^ in form, they being true fishes) many persons are 
strongly prejudiced against their use. 

Eggs. This well-known animal product is of the ut- 
most importance as an article of food, and is of universal 



EGG PLANT. 87 

use. The eggs of all birds may be used as an article of 
food, but our suppl}^ is obtained from the conmion fowl. 
The quahty of an egg is no doubt influenced by the food 
on which the fowls feed, the richer the food the better the 
egg. The composition of all eggs is nearly similar, for 
there is always a white portion and a yolk, the former 
consisting of nearly pure albumen with water, and the lat- 
ter of albumen, oil, sulphur and water. The weight of an 
ordinary fowl's egg is from one and a half to two ounces, 
while that of the duck is from two to three ounces. 
It is estimated that New York city consumes annually 
over 300,000,000 eggs, valued at over $ 6,000,000. The 
estimated value of the product of our poultry yards for 
one year is over $ 200,000,000. 

There are several factories in this country that now 
manufacture what is known as Desiccated eggs, by a pro- 
cess of extracting the water, leaving the residue dry and 
of a mealy appearance. It is sent to market in cans, 
boxes and barrels. It answers all the purposes of fresh 
eggs in cooking, and msij be kept for any length of time. 
As an article for winter consumption, or for use on jour- 
neys it must certainly come into extended use. 

Egg Plant, {Solanum Melongena) an annual herba- 
ceous plant belonging to the same genus as the potato 
and nightshade, is a native of India and Northern Africa. 
The plant grows to a height of about two feet, has a prick- 
ly stem and large ovate prickly leaves, flowers of a pur- 
plish color of some beauty, fruit a globose or egg-shaped 
berry about four inches in diameter, but varying much in 
size with the conditions under which it is grown. It is 
much cultivated and is a favorite article of food in India 



88 EPSOM SALT. 

and other warm countries and is also used to a consider- 
able extent in the United States. The plant flourishes in 
New Jersey, where it is extensively grown, but does not 
do as well further north. It is sown in hot beds in March 
or April and transplanted late in May or in June to a 
warm, rich soil. There are several varieties of the plant, 
producing respectively purple, white and red fruit. It is 
prepared for the table in many different ways. 

Epsom Salt, the common name for hydrated magnesi- 
um sulphate (Mg S O4 7 H2 O) , so called from its having 
been first obtained by evaporating the water of mineral 
springs at Epsom, England. The commercial supply of 
the salt is now chiefly obtained from sea-water and from 
magnesian limestone. When sea water is used the 
greater part of the common salt is first removed by evap- 
oration and the remaining hitter n^ consisting chieflj^ of 
magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate, is boiled 
down with the addition of sulphuric acid or sodic sul- 
phate, by either of which magnesium chloride is converted 
into sulphate. When magnesium limestone is used, it is 
first calcined, and the lime and magnesia are then convert- 
ed into hydrates by sprinkling with water, after which 
both are converted into sulphates by treating with sul- 
phuric acid, and, as sulphate of magnesia is much more 
soluble than sulphate of hme, the separation is easily ef- 
fected. An excellent quality of the salt is also made at 
Baltimore and Philadelphia from the mineral magnesite a 
sihcious hj^drate of magnesia. This is reduced to pow- 
der and treated with sulphuric acid, and the sulphate 
thus formed is separated from the accompan3dng iron 
and other impurities by crystallizing and separating and 



EPSOM SALT. 89 

washing the crystals. Epsom salt is also found in the 
form of an inflorescence incrusting the walls of caves, 
in many of our Western States. In the Mammoth Cave, 
Kentucky, loose masses of it hke snow balls are foimd 
adhering to the roof. Epsom salt crystallizes in four 
sided prisms with reversed dihedral summits, having a 
specific gravity of 1.75. The crystals effloresce slightly 
in the air and those found in commerce are often deli- 
quescent from containing magnesium chloride. They are 
soluble in about their own weight of water. In taste 
they are saline and bitter. 

The salt is much used as a cathartic and, being mild 
and cooling, is well adapted to the treatment of fevers 
and inflammatory diseases. The average dose is one 
ounce, but its laxative action may be much increased by 
diluting it with a large amount of water, the same dose 
dissolved in a quart of water, producing a much greater 
efiect than if dissolved in but a half pint. Owing to its 
nauseous taste it is most easily taken in ' ' soda water " 
with lemon syrup. The action of many of the celebrated 
mineral waters depends largely upon the presence of this 
salt. The salt is frequently mixed with ordinary white- 
wash, it giving a fine pearl}^ appearance to the walls. It 
also forms an excellent addition to starch for laundry use, 
materially increasing its stiffening properties. Epsom 
salt is frequently adulterated with sulphate of soda, 
the presence of which may be detected by dissolving 100 
grains in water and precipitating with a boihng solution of 
carbonate of potash. If this precipitate when dry weighs 
less than 34 grains, sulphate of soda is probably present 
in fraudulent quantities. 



90 ESSENCE — EXTRACTS OF MEAT. 

Essence, as now used, is very loosely applied in its 
meaning. Sometimes it is equiv Silent to fluid extract or 
volatile oil, and at other times to strong solution, to con- 
centrated preparation, to infusion, to decoction, and to 
tincture. Among the large number of essences now sold 
and used for flavoring purposes in beverages, perfumer}^ 
or pastry, are the essences of apple, allspice, almond, 
bergamot, caraway, cedrat, celerj^, cinnamon, cloves, 
jasmine, jonquil, lavender, lemon, lemon peel, m3Ttle, 
nutmeg, orange, pear, peppermint, pineapple, rose, va- 
nilla, verbena, violet, etc. Animal essences are those 
made from animal substances. Artiffcial essences are 
now manufactured by the skill of the chemist, from the 
petroleum compounds, and so closely imitate the natural 
flavor of fruits as to defy detection. Essences as com- 
monly prepared are simply the solutions of the essential 
oils in alcohol ; the oil is added to the rectified spirit 
and shaken till a uniform mixture is obtained ; thus es- 
sence of lemon is simply a solution of the oil of lemon in 
rectified spirit ; itTnay be still further diluted by the ad- 
dition of water. 

Extracts of Meat. These are prepared in two 
forms — in a thick semi-fluid state, and as a solid. The 
extracts are prepared by boihng down the flesh of ani- 
mals so that thirt3^-two pounds of flesh are said to be re- 
quired to produce one pound of Liebig's extract. Dur- 
ing the process, all the fat and as much of the gelatine 
and albumen as can be extracted are removed from the 
solution of flesh, whilst the fibrine, being insoluble, is lefl 
behind. Hence there remain water, salts, osmazome and 
the extractives of flesh ; or in general terms the flavor- 



EXTKACTS OF MEAT. 91 

ing matters and the salts of meat, thus leaving out all 
that is popularly regarded as nutritious. This substance 
varies in value according to the amount of water allowed 
to remain in it. The intense flavor of meat which it pos- 
sesses is hke that of roasted flesh, and is always the 
same. This substance is of but httle value as a nutritive, 
as the nutritions portions have been removed and noth- 
ing remains but the salts and the flavor. But used as an 
addition to other food, or mixed with white of an egg, 
gelatine, bread and other cooked farinaceous food, it is of 
considerable value as a stimulant. The solid prepara- 
tions contain a considerable proportion of gelatine, and 
do not putrefy, because the gelatine has been dried. On 
account of the presence of gelatine this is more nutritious 
than the semi-fluid form. 

Fluid Meat is a preparation of lean meat which differs 
from the various extracts of meat, in its retaining the fi- 
brine, gelatine, and coagulated albumen. This is efl'ected 
by dissolving them as they would be in the process of di- 
gestion in the stomach, and thus both advancing them a 
stage in the process of digestion, and enabling them to 
resist decomposition. One pound of the fluid meat is 
obtained from four pounds of lean flesh, and assuming 
that all the nitrogenous compounds in the flesh, as well 
as the salts, are present in it, it must be a convenient as 
well as a valuable food. Fluid meat is prepared by the 
action of pepsin and hydrochloric acid upon lean meat, 
finely sliced, with the addition of water, at a temperature 
of 96° to 100° F., until the whole fibrine of the meat has 
disappeared. The liquid is then filtered, separating 
small portions of fat, cartilage, or other insoluble mat- 



92 ^ FARIKA FIGS. 

ters, and neiitralizecl bj^ means of carbonate of soda. It 
is finall}' evaporated to the consistence of a soft extract. 

Farina. A name applied to any powdered cereal 
gi^inrs, and even powdered pulse. In a wider sense it 
includes all starchy foods prepared from various roots 
and stalks , such as arrowroot, sago, tapioca ; as these 
substances abound in starch, starchy food is often called 
farinaceous. 

Figs, the fruit of the Ficus carica, a deciduous tree of 
the Artocarpeae or bread-fruit family, native of Asia and 
Barbary. The tree grows to a height of from fifteen to 
twenty feet and has a large, spreading top, resembling an 
apple tree, when grown in its native climes, but when 
grown in cold chmates it. is shrubby in habit and attains 
but a small size. It is thought by many that the fig tree 
is a sort of anomal}^ in nature bearing its fruit without 
ever producing any blossoms. The error has arisen 
from the pecuhar manner in which its flowers are pro- 
duced, they being borne upon the inside of a hollow re- 
ceptacle which first appears in the axils of the leaves and 
in form much resembles a little bud. Upon being cut 
open this will be found to contain a large number of mi- 
nute apetalous flowers each bearing both stamens and 
stigmas. When the flowers have become impregnated, 
the enclosing receptacle, which has been at rest for some 
time, begins again to increase in size, becomes sweet, suc- 
culent, ver}^ pulpy, and, when ripened, constitutes the edi- 
ble portion of the fig. The seeds formed from the de- 
velopment of the-fiowers are to be found in large num- 
bers upon the^^side. This so called fruit is accordinglj- 
like the sja^fberry, not a true fruit but a pecuharly de- 



FIGS. 93 

veloped edible receptacle upon which the true fruit is 
borne, not as in the strawberrj- upon the outside but up- 
on the inside. The tree produces two or more crops in a 
season, the first from the axils of the leaves of the pre- 
ceding year, and a later and longer continued one from 
the axils of the leaves of the season. In warm climates 
the second crop is much more abundant and valuable ; 
they receive the name of summer figs and are the ones 
chiefly exported. The fig is cultivated in warm, tem- 
perate chmates, but can be well ripened only where the 
summer and autumn are warm and dry. It is grown 
throughout southern Europe and to some extent even in 
England. In the eastern United States the great diffi- 
culty encountered in its cultivation is the severity of 
the winters which sometimes kills the trees as far south as 
Florida. 

It may, however, be successfully grow^n if afforded 
winter protection. There are several varieties of figs, 
comprising fruits which are white, brown, green, and 
yellow in color. The brown Turkey, white and brown 
Ischia, and white Marseilles are among the more valua- 
ble varieties. Fresh figs form a very important article 
of food in many parts of the Levant and of Africa. 
For exportation they are dried in the sun or in stoves 
and are known as " natural" when not compressed in 
packing but retaining their original shape, or as "pulled" 
when after drying they are made supple b}^ kneading and 
then packed by pressure into drums or boxes. " Eleme" 
figs are merely those of a superior quality, so called from 
a Turkish word meaning hand-picked. In packing the 
best quality of figs a few bay leaves are placed in the top 



94 FILBERTS GELATINE. 

of the box to exclude insects. Until recentl}' nearly all 
the figs used in the United States and Great Britain were 
grown in Turkey, Sm3Tna being the gi-eat fig mart from 
which they were exported. For the 3^ear ending Septem- 
ber 30, 1877, there were consumed in this countr}^ 5,889, 
Oil pounds of figs, valued at $398,982. Recently how- 
ever California figs have become of much importance in 
commerce. 

Filberts, the nut of the European Hazel {Carylus 
Avellana) a shi'ubby bush growing six to ten feet in 
height and which is extensively cultivated for its nuts. 
The round varieties are commonl}^ called cobnuts the 
name filbert being applied only to the elongated sorts. 
The American hazel-nut has sometimes received the name 
of filbert. The Carylus Caluma of Turkey produces 
large and very oily filberts, used principally for the pro- 
duction of oil. Barcelona nuts are filberts which have 
been kiln-dried to increase their keeping qualities. Fil- 
berts are much used as dessert nuts, and also for the 
production of an oil, known as nut-oil, of which they 
jdeld about half their weight. Nut-oil is much used by 
artists as a drying oil, and is also employed b}' the mak- 
ers of choice varnish, and by druggists as the basis of 
fragrant oils. 

Gelatinej an azotized semi-solid substance of soft, 
tremulous consistency^, obtained from various parts of the 
animal body, such as the white-fibrous tissue, the skin, 
and cartilage, by boiling in water. The substance as it 
usually exists contains much water which may be dried 
out, leaving a brittle, glassy mass which swells but does 
not dissolve in cold water but dissolves readily in hot 



GIN. 95 

water. When pure, gelatine is colorless, transparent, in- 
odorous, and of insipid taste. It ma}^ be tested for odor 
hj dissolving in hot water, as, when dry, glue, if present, 
does not reveal itself by its characteristic odor. It con- 
sists according to Scheerer, of 50.05 parts carbon, 6.9 
hj'drogen, 17.4 nitrogen, and 25.65 parts oxj^gen. It is 
claimed by others to contain a small amount of sulphur. 
It is prepared for market from the skin from calves' heads, 
and from other thick pieces which are unfit for the tanner. 
These are first cleaned of hair and bits of flesh and fat, 
and well washed, after which they are cut into small 
pieces and reduced to pulp by machinery, being washed 
during the process hj cold water to remove all impurities. 
The pulp is then subjected to a temperature of 240° to 
250° F. and passed through crushing rollers, by which 
means the gelatine is obtained in solution. The methods 
employed differ however considerably among manufact- 
urers. The gelatine solution is purified by the addition 
usually of ox blood, and allowed to settle, after which it 
is drawn off into shallow coolers and dried. Gelatine is 
used to a considerable extent as food, more commonl}- in 
the form of soups, but has not a high nutritive value It 
forms the basis of many jellies used upon the table as 
appetizers. It is extensively used in the arts as a dress- 
ing for silk and other fabrics, for the manufacture of 
cements, for clarifjdng liquors, for preparing tracing 
paper, etc. The French make from it artificial flowers of 
great beauty. It has recently been used with striking 
success as a material in which to take ver}^ delicate casts. 
Gin or Greneva, an alcoholic liquor, distilled from rye 
and barley and flavored with Juniper. It was first man- 



ye 



GINGER. 



ufactured in Holland, from which it is sometimes called 
" Hollands." At Schiedam in Holland there are nearly 
300 distilleries of this hquor. Gin, unlike all other ardent 
spirits, may be said to be a purely artificial compound 
and prepared b}" recipes adopted by each distiller, with 
the unknown addition of the retailer. It consists of any 
spirit distilled in the ordinary manner, (but usually from 
inferior spuits, and containing much fusel oil) of which 
about 80 gallons of proof strength is distilled with 10 
gallons of water, 3J lbs. of common salt, and five fluid 
ounces of tui'pentine, with or without essence of juniper 
berries, and creosote. A strong, acrid, fiery spirit, is 
prepared b}^ adding to gin various aromatic essences, as 
coriander, capsicum, caraway, cardamoms and lemon, or 
creosote, sulphuric acid, and salts of tartar. Gin is very 
largely the drink indulged in b}^ the lower classes in Eng- 
land, and is probably adulterated more than any other 
liquor. 

Ginger {Zanzibar officinale) is a native of India and 
China, but is now extensively cultivated in tropical Am- 
erica and west Africa. It has an annual stem which 
gi'ows from a tuberous root-stock, to the height of two or 
three feet. Its flowers are yellowish and emit an aro- 
matic odor. The ginger of commerce is derived from the 
flesh}', creeping root-stocks ; these are dug up when a 
year old, generallj^ in January and February after the 
stems have withered. After being properly cleaned, they 
are scalded with boiling water to prevent sprouting, and 
then rapidly dried. This is known as black or East In- 
dia ginger. In Jamaica the best sorts are selected and 
deprived of their outer skin, or epidermis, and then care- 



Glauber's salt — glue. 97 

fully and separately dried in the sun. This gives them 
a beautiful white color, and it is known in commerce as 
white or Jamaica ginger. Calcutta exports the princi- 
pal part of the ginger of commerce, and also much gin- 
ger root which is boiled and then cured with sugar. In 
commerce the whole ginger is known as race ginger. 
Ginger is used as a flavoring for food, and is also em- 
ployed in medicines. The popular aromatic stimulant 
sold as Jamaica ginger is a concentrated alcoholic tinct- 
ure. Ginger is commonly sold in the powdered state 
and is largely adulterated with starch, wheat flour, mus- 
tard husks, etc. The value of the ginger consumed in 
the United States for 1877 was % 158,277. 

Glauber's Salt, so named from its discoverer, J. R. 
Glauber (1604-68), is the hydrated neutral sulphate of 
soda, (Na2So4H20) . It is found native in sea-water, in 
mineral springs, and very abundantly in the alkaline soils 
and waters of the western plains and mountains of the 
United States. It is made in enormous quantities by the 
decomposition of common salt by sulphuric acid in the 
process of manufacturing common soda. It forms large 
transparent monoclinic crystals which are highly efl[lores- 
cent, and if exposed to dry air for some time lose all their 
water of crystallization and fall down in a bulky white 
powder. Glauber's salt is a mild saline cathartic and 
was formerly much used in medicine but is now but little 
employed except in veterinary practice. 

Glue, a hard, brittle form of dried gelatine, containing 
impurities which give it a brownish color. It is made from 
the hoofs, scraps of hides etc., of animals, in the same 
manner as gelatine. For use as a cement it is dissolved 



98 GOOSEBERRY GRAPE. 

by a gentle heat in a water bath. Prepared or liquid glue 
is the ordinary solution, kept liquid by the addition of ni- 
tric or commercial acetic acid. 

Gooseberry, (Ribes Grossularia) a low, deciduous 
shrub ; stems mostly bearing thorns at the base of the leaf 
stalks : the fruit is smooth or prickl}^ The gooseberry has 
been cultivated in Europe for the last two or three hundred 
years, and the varieties are ybtj numerous. It is also a 
native of this countr}^, from which our cultivated varieties 
are derived. The European species will not thrive in 
this country on account of its being attacked by the mil- 
dew. The fruit is used, when unripe, for making tarts and 
pies, and when ripe is a good dessert fruit, and is also 
made into jam and preserves. It also enters into the 
manufacture of wine and vinegar, and, put up in cans, is 
found on all gTocers' shelves. 

Grape, the fruit of woody vines belonging to the genus 
Yitis of the order Yitacese. G-rapes for our purpose ma}'" 
be divided into two classes — European and American 
grapes. The former species is the Vitis Vinifera of the 
naturalists, and from it are derived the many varieties 
cultivated in Europe and Asia. The European grape can- 
not be successfully cultivated in this country east of the 
Rocky Mountains ; but in Cahfornia it is of eas}^ growth, 
and grape culture in that state is assuming large propor- 
tions. Of the American grape there are four described 
species, viz. Y. Labrusca, Y. Aestivahs, Y. Cardifolia, 
and Y. Yulpian. From these species have been derived 
by cultivation all our varieties of grapes. From the 
grape we have, as commercial products, wine and raisins 
(which see) , while the fruit itself is largely consumed as 



GKASS SEED GUNPOWDER. 99 

a dessert for the table. Among tlie best varieties for 
table grapes may be mentioned the Concord, Delaware, 
lona, Hartford Prolific, Isabella, Catawba and Diana ; 
of these the Concord, Delaware and Catawba take the 
lead. 

Grass Seed, a term generally applied to the seed of 
the timothy (Phleum pratense) , although it may be appli- 
ed to the seed of any grass. Timothy is one of the most 
valuable of all crops for the production of hay. It grows 
to a height of from two to four feet, and the flowers are 
arranged on a spike, one head to each stem. When cut 
for seed, the timothy is allowed to ripen, which impairs 
its feeding qualities. As high as thirty bushels of seed 
have been raised from one acre of ground. Large quan- 
tities of seed are raised in Illinois and Wisconsin and 
shipped to the east. 

Gum, Chewing, an article of unknown benefit, and of 
equally mysterious composition. The natural gum of 
the spruce is largely used in the manufacture of chewing 
gum ; various other gums and resins are also used. Par- 
affine is also largely used in its preparation. 

Gumbo, Okra, the pods of the Hibiscus esculens, a 
plant of the Mallow family, native of the West Indies, 
where, as also in the Southern States and most warm cli- 
mates, it is much cultivated. The green pods are very 
mucilaginous, and excellent in soups or cooked and serv- 
ed with butter. They are also extensively made into 
pickles. 

Gunpowder, is an explosive material formed by the 
intimate mechanical admixture of nitre, charcoal and sul- 
phur. The knowledge of the explosive property of such 



100 GUNPOWDER. 

a mixture is of very great antiquity, some writers placing 
it even anterior to the beginning of the Christian Era. 
It was certainly in use in China as early as the ninth cen- 
tury, but we are not certain of its having been emploj^ed 
with firearms until the early part of the fourteenth, and it 
was not until the sixteenth century that it came into gen- 
eral use in warfare. The proportions of the several in- 
gredients in gunpowder are always nearly the same, and 
correspond quite closely with the proportions requked b}' 
the theory of combining equivalents, were the combina- 
tion a chemical one instead of simply mechanical. The 
following are the proportions usually employed : 

Nitre. Charcoal. Sulphm*. 
By atomic theory, 74.64 

U. S. Military, 76. 

Sporting, 78. 

Blasting, 62. 

In blasting powder the proportion of nitre is reduced 
to make it cheaper, and for the same reason nitrate of 
soda is frequently substituted for the nitrate of potash. 
This makes an equally strong and very cheap powder, 
but it has a strong affinity for moisture and is conse- 
quently difficult to preserve without deterioration. The 
most important ingredient of gunpowder is the nitre or 
saltpetre, the nitrate of potash, which is chiefl}^ obtained 
from the East Indies, where it occurs as an efflorescence 
upon the surface of the ground. The charcoal for gun- 
powder is made by the destructive distillation of the hght- 
er kinds of wood in iron retorts. In this country willow 
and poplar wood are principally employed, and in Europe 
the common and black alder and white birch are chiefly 



13.51 


ll.i 


14. 


10. 


12. 


10. 


18. 


10. 



GUNPOWDER. 101 

made use of for the purpose. Only sticks of small size, 
not over an inch in diameter, and for sporting powder 
even much smaller are used, and these must be peeled 
and well seasoned before charring. 

The quality of the charcoal depends upon the heat at 
which it is distilled; if it be about 1800° F., at which 
temperature the process takes about six hours, the result 
is black charcoal. If a temperature of about 500"^ is con- 
tinued for twelve hours there results brown charcoal. 
Brown charcoal^ makes a stronger and more inflammable 
powder, but one which is more difficult to preserve, from 
its h ability to absorb moisture. Sulphur for the manu- 
factm-e of gunpowder is obtained by purifying crude sul- 
phur by distilation, and afterward pulverizing it in a mill. 
Flowers of sulphur produced by sublimation are not suit- 
able upon account of containing a quantity of sulphuric 
and sulphurous acids. 

In the process of manufacturing gunpowder the ingre- 
dients are first pulverized, the charcoal and sulphur being 
rolled for this purpose in barrels with zinc balls. The 
barrels in which the charcoal is crushed are made of cast 
iron and those for the sulphur are of leather stretched 
over wooden frames. The materials after being thorough- 
ly pulverized are next incorporated together by first mix- 
ing them in rolling barrels and after grinding them under 
heav}^ cast-iron wheels following each other in a circular 
cast-iron trough. Each wheel weighs from four to eight 
tons, and the operation is continued for from three to 
twelve hours and is one of the most important in making- 
gunpowder, for, the more thoroughly the materials are 
mixed the more complete will be the combustion. It is 



102 GUNPOWDER. 

also the dangerous operation in powder making, explor 
ions of the wheel mills as they are termed frequently occur- 
ring, though such precautions are now taken that they are 
seldom very disastrous. The powder, when taken from 
the wheel mill, is ver}' lumpy and irregular and is conse- 
quently next reduced to meal under rollers, after which it 
is spread in layers upon brass plates and submitted to 
very heavy pressure in an hj^draulic press, which reduces 
the layers from about four inches in thickness to cakes of 
an inch or less in thickness. The mildness or violence of 
the explosive power of the powder depends very much 
upon the degree of pressure to which it has been subject- 
ed, as the pressure determines the density and rapidity 
of combustion of the grains. 

The cakes, after removal from the press, are next sub- 
mitted to the process of graining, which consists in break- 
ing up the cakes by passing them through fluted rollers 
and passing the product over a succession of sieves of 
var3'ing mesh. The grains as thus produced have sharp 
angles and require to be rounded and smoothed to prevent 
the formation of dust in transportation and handhng . This 
is done by rolling the powder in barrels for from six to 
twenty-four hours, after which it is dried in rooms heated 
by steam to from 130° to 180° to remove the moisture 
which has been purposely introduced in the previous op- 
erations. The fine dust and minute grains are next re- 
moved by the use of fine sieves and bolting cloths, after 
which the powder has but to be graded to be ready for 
market. It is classified, according to the size of the 
meshes through which it is sifted, into eleven nmnbers, 
from to 10, No. 10 being the finest rifle powder whilst 



HADDOCK HALIBUT. 103 

is mammoth powder for artillery. Instead of numbers 
the letters F, FF, and FFF, and C, CC, CCC, are some- 
times used. In classifying according to quality each mak- 
er has his own system and nomenclature. 

Haddock, a soft rayed fish of the cod familj^ and ge- 
nus Morrhua ( Jf. aeglefinis) . The species vary in length 
from 1 to 2 feet, and weigh from two to six pounds. It 
is found everj^where on the American coast from New 
York to the Arctic regions ; they occur in immense shoals, 
changing theii' gTounds as their food becomes exhausted. 
It is an excellent fish when eaten fresh. It is a voracioTis 
eater and is easily caught ; the fisherj' is valuable to 
New England and the British provinces, and is pursued 
in the same manner as for cod, and in deep water. Had- 
dock may be distinguished from cod by its having a black 
lateral stripe instead of white, as in the cod. 

Hake, a name applied to fishes of the cod family of 
the genus Merlucius ; also applied to the American hake, 
a fish belonging to the genus Phycis. The hakes may 
be distinguished from the cod by having only two dorsal 
fins. The European hake is abundant in the ocean and 
in the Mediterranean sea, and on the coasts of Ireland 
and Cornwall. It grows to a length of 1 to 2 ft. and is 
caught and cured like the cod in northern countries. 
The white or common hake reaches a length of from 1 
to 3 ft. and is taken along the coast from New Jersey 
northward. It is a valuable fish when salted and is 
largely exported from the British Provinces. The hake, 
haddock and pollock are often sold as cod to those un- 
able to distinguish them. 

Halilbut, {Hippoglossus vulgaris) a fish found on tlio 



104 HAZEL NUT. 

coast from New Tork to Greenland, and also on the 
northern shore of Europe. It reaches a length of from 
three to six feet, and varies in weight from one hundred 
to five hundred pounds. The fish has a flat, oblong 
body, compressed vertically, the right side dark brown, 
and the left a pure white ; the eyes are on the right or 
colored side. Large quantities of these fish are caught 
on George's bank and Nantucket shoals ; it is also abun- 
dant in the bay of Fundy and in the waters of Nova 
Scotia. The flesh of the halibut is coarse and dry but 
much esteemed by some. Large quantities of the flesh 
are dried, salted or smoked, and largely consumed in 
northern countries. In England it is but httle esteemed, 
but in this country brings a higher price than cod. Our 
fresh water sturgeon is said to be smoked and largely 
sold for halibut. 

Hazel Nut, the fruit of a small shrub, the Corylus 
Americana, belonging to the oak family. The nuts are 
small and not so good as those of the European hazel or 
filbert. It is found in thickets, along borders of fence 
rows etc., thi'oughout the United States. It flowers in 
March and April and fr'uits in September. 

Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is a plant belonging to the 
famil}^ of nettles. The true hemp is a native of the 
East, but is now cultivated thi'oughout Europe and in 
the United States, and used in the manufacture of cord- 
age and textile fabrics. The seed of the plant is the 
part that enters into the gTOcers' economy, being sold as 
food for cage birds ; it is said to greatly increase the 
brilhancy of their plumage, and, in the case of the bull- 
finch and some others, to cause it to tui-n black. Hemp 



HERRING. 105 

seed upon expression yields hemp seed oil, the commer- 
cial supply of which comes principally from Russia. 

Herring. Two species of herring are of importance 
as furnishing large quantities of food, the American and 
Em'opean. The common American herring, or blue back, 
is the Clupea elongata of naturalists. It varies in length 
from twelve to fifteen inches, and is found on the coasts 
of New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, and 
is generally most abundant from March to May. It is 
captured by means of seines and sweep nets to the 
amount of a hundred barrels or more in a single night. 
The common herring of Europe is C. Harengus^ and is 
from ten to thirteen inches long. Herrings are eaten 
fresh, salted, and smoked, and in the value of its fishery 
it ranks next to the cod. The food of the herring ap- 
pears to be chiefly minute crustaceans or worms, and 
sometimes its own young and other small fish. The 
young of the herring is said to be the celebrated white 
bait. It was once thought that the herrings migrated 
to the Artie regions in the winter, when they reappeared 
in immense shoals daring the spring, summer and au- 
tumn, along the coasts of Europe, Asia and America. 
But it is now maintained by modern observers that the 
fish merely retire to the deep waters and return to the 
shores during the spawning seasons. Whenever they do 
appear they come in vast shoals covering the sea for 
miles, and are followed by large flocks of sea birds 
which devour them for food. Iimnense quantities of the 
fish are taken annually, but there seems to be no duninu- 
tion of their numbers. The regularit}^ of their appear- 
ance, their value as food, and the ease with which they 



106 HICKORY NUT. 

are taken has led to their capture from the earliest times. 
The French herring fisher}'^ dates from the eleventh cen- 
tury, and the Enghsh three centuries earlier. The Dutch 
also engaged in the fishery at an early period and it was 
a source of much prosperity to them. Amsterdam was 
the great center of the trade, and it has been said that 
the city was built on herring bones. The quantity" of 
cured herrings brought in b}- American vessels for the 
year ending June 30, 1875 was 124,215 cwt., valued at 
$265,463. Large quantities are also consumed fresh 
which are not included in the above. The fishing is car- 
ried on during the winter and spring. An important 
winter fishery is along the coast of Maine and in the bay 
of Fundy. The fish are taken through holes in the ice 
by means of nets ; they are preserved frozen and sold 
in the eastern cities. The herring is cured both gutted 
and ungutted ; when pickled and packed in barrels 
they are known in Great Britian as white herrings ; 
salted and smoked, they are called red herring ; when 
partially cured and smoked they are known as " bloat- 
ers." The Dutch fisheries have greatly declined, but 
Dutch or HoUand herring still command the highest 
price in the continental markets. 

Hickory Nut, the fruit of the trees of the genus 
Carya. C. Alba furnishes the common shellbark or shag- 
bark hickory nuts of the markets. The bark of the 
trunk is shagg}^, coming ofl" in rough strips or plates. 
The tree is tall, reaching a height of 60 or 80 feet, with 
irregular and scattered branches. The nut is white, 
flattish globular, barely mucronate, the shell thinnish. 
The delicious flavor of its fruit is not excelled by any 



HOMINY — HONEY. 107 

foreign nut. C. Sulcata is the western shellbark hick- 
ory. In this the nut is large, from one and a half to two 
inches long, and usually angular, dull white or j'^ellowish, 
thick walled^ usually strongly pointed at both ends. The 
shellbarks are found from Pennsylvania to Wisconsin and 
southward. The wood of both species is ver}^ valuable 
and is largely used in the turning of axe helves, spokes, 
handspikes etc. 

Hominy (See Indian corn) . 

Honey. The saccharine material collected from flow- 
ers by various kinds of insects as food for themselves and 
progeny, especially that collected by the honey-bee. 
Honey is a natural product of the plants from which it is 
obtained, the bees simply gathering and storing it, and 
not, as many suppose, making it from some other material. 
It consists esentially of a solution of several different 
kinds of sugar, but contains in addition small quantities 
of other substances peculiar to the plant by which it is 
produced, and its flavor and quality depend, consequently, 
very much upon the source from which it is obtained. 
That made from the flowers of the bass-wood and white 
clover is of the finest flavor. That made from many 
plants retains something of the poisonous quahty of the 
juice of those plants, and, in consequence, many persons 
having delicate stomachs, are entirely unable to partake of 
this delicacy. The deleterious substances are, however, 
usually volatile, and honey which has stood some time is 
consequently much less liable to produce injurious effects 
than that just removed from the hive. The invention td 
the movable frame hive, together with the still more re- 
cent honey extractor, which removes the honey from the 



108 HOPS. 

comb cells by centrifugal force, leaving the comb in con- 
dition to be again used by the bees, are improvements 
which have greatly added to the economy of honey pro- 
ducing. The extracted honey contains none of the bee 
bread and other impurities which render strained honey 
of so inferior flavor. 

The total production of honey in the United States is 
about 50,000,000 lbs. annually, which is obtained from 
about 2,000,000 hives of bees kept by 70,000 persons. 

Of this product about 4,000,000 lbs., or $1,200,000 
worth is exported. 

Honey is often adulterated with solutions of cheap 
sugars, especially the uncrystallizable or grape sugars 
(glucose), and starch, chalk, gypsum and pipe clay are 
also added to it to increase the weight. 

Artificial honey is produced in considerable quantities, 
and usually consists of a solution of glucose, to which is 
added eggs and frequently cream of tartar. Flavorings 
of various kinds are employed, and a small quantity of 
genuine honey is sometimes used to improve the flavor. 

Hops, the strobiles or cones containing the seed of the 
Hop plant {Humulus lupulus) . The hop is a vine with 
perennial roots, from which spring up numerous annual 
shoots which climb spirally around any sustaining object 
to a hight of 20 or 30 feet. The plant is dioecious and 
its flowers apetalous, the staminate ones growing in large, 
axillary panicles, whilst the pistillate ones are clustered 
in short catkins made up of leafy scales, each of which 
blears two flowers. In maturing, the scales of the catkin 
increase much in size, and form the membranaceous cones 
or strobiles. 



HOPS. 109 

The scales are covered near their base with minute, yel- 
low grains of an aromatic, resinous substance, known as 
lupuline. This constitutes about 10 per cent of the 
weight of the dried strobiles and contains the gi-eater 
portion of the valuable constituents of the hops. The 
valuable constituents of commercial hops are a highly 
aromatic oil, residing almost entirely in the yellow lupu- 
line, a bitter crystalline principle, tannic acid, and extract- 
ive matter which is soluble in water. The hop is found 
growing wild in North America and in Europe and has 
long been in cultivation. It is grown in Grermany and 
elswhere upon the continent, whilst in England the coun- 
ty of Kent is found especially favorable to its growth, 
over 25,000 acres of land in the shire being appropriated 
to its production. In the United States the production 
has very gTeatly increased in the last few years, the total 
production in 1850 being about 3,500,000 pounds, in 
1860, 11,000,000 lbs., and, according to the last census, 
25,456,699 lbs. in 1870, of which New York produced 
17,558,000, and Wisconsin 4,630,000 pounds. 

Hops require a deep, rich soil, and it is especially essen- 
tial that it should be well drained and comparatively dry 
at all seasons of the year. They are grown in hills from 
6 to 8 feet apart, in which are set the " cuttings" which 
are the shoots from the crown of the plant cut into pieces 
containing two to four buds each. About one hill in 60 
or 80 is set with male plants in order that the female flow- 
ers may be properly fertilized. The first year the vines 
are allowed to run upon the ground, or poles six or eight 
feet in height are set for them, but unless the soil is rich 
and strong no crop is to be expected. Some other crop 



110 HOPS. 

is however frequently grown upon the same ground the 
first year. In the spring of the second year stakes 18 or 
20 feet in height are set, usually two in each hill, and as 
the vines start they are turned upon them. In sections 
where poles are scarce, sawed stakes about eight 
feet high are set and hempen strings are stretched from 
the top of one to another for the vines to run upon. 
During the summer it is only necessary that the ground 
should be kept mellow and free from weeds. The hops 
ripen about the last of August, when the poles are taken 
down, the vines being first cut, and the hops are picked 
by women and children. The harvest lasts several weeks 
and employs a great number of hands. After being pick- 
ed the hops are taken to the kiln, or drying house, where 
they are placed upon screens of wire or hair cloth, or upon 
hempen carpets, and dried at a temperatm-e not exceed- 
ing 180° F. When dry they are packed lightly in bales 
by means of screw presses and are then sent into the mar- 
ket. The hop crop is a very uncertain one, they being 
subject to the attacks of many enemies of which the blight 
and aphis or louse are the most common. There are sev- 
eral varieties of hops cultivated, of which the Grape, 
English Cluster and Pompey are considered the best. 

Hops are used in enormous quantities in the manufact- 
ure of malt liquors to which they impart an agreeable fla- 
vor, add to their tonic and stimulating properties, and 
greatly increase their keeping qualities, while the tannic 
acid which they contain, by its action upon the albumen 
in the liquors, is of value in clearing and settling them. 

Hops are also used in the manufacture of yeast and to 
some extent in medicine. 



HORSE RADISH HUCKLEBERRY. Ill 

Horse Radish {Nasturtium Armorada) , a perennial 
plant belonging to the Mustard, family, native of Europe, 
is cultivated in gardens for its root, which furnishes a pun- 
gent condiment for the table. When fresh it has a biting 
taste and pungent odor, due to the presence of a volatile 
oil which is dissipated in drying. This oil is very similar 
to if not identical with that of mustard. For use the root 
is grated and mixed with vinegar and should be used fresh 
as it deteriorates by standing. It is put up for the mar- 
ket in tightly sealed bottles. Both the root and leaves 
are to some extent used in medicine as local stimulants. 
The young leaves are much used as pot herbs and are ex- 
cellent for the purpose. 

Huckleberry, Whortleberry, Blueberry, names ap- 
plied somewhat indiscriminatelj' to the various species of 
the two genera, Gaylussada and Vacdnium, of the 
Heath family. The name huckleberr}^ is more appropri- 
ately used only for the genus Gaylussacia and blueberry 
for the Vaccinium, whilst whortleberry is the name in com- 
mon use in Europe, but is falling into disuse in this coun- 
tr}'. These plants are found very widely distributed, in 
temperate climes and differ much in their habits of 
growth. All are shrubs but vary in height from one to 
twelve feet. Several species grow only in dr}^, rocky, 
and mountainous regions, while others are found only in 
very wet, dark swamps. All produce edible berries which 
vary in size from that of currants to small grapes, and in 
color from light blue to black, many varieties being cov- 
ered with a delicate white bloom. They ripen from first of 
June to last of August and are gathered in very great 
quantities and used as a dessert fruit and for pies and 



112 INDIAN CORN. 

puddings. In many sections of the United States they 
furnish much the most abundant fruit for midsummer use. 
They are but little cultivated. 

Indian Corn {Zea Maze). One of the most valuable 
of food-producing plants, and well known thi'oughout all 
this country. It is a tropical plant but reaches its per- 
fection in the south temperate zone, where the hot sum- 
mers force it to maturity. It is supposed to be a native 
of America and was used as an article of food by the In- 
dians at the time of the discovery of this country, whence 
its name, Indian Corn. From America it was carried to 
Europe and its cultivation soon extended into Asia and 
Africa. Corn cannot be successfully grown in England 
on account of the dampness of the climate. The chemi- 
cal composition of 100 parts is as follows : water, 14 ; 
nitrogenous, 11.0; starch, 64.7; sugar, 0.4; fat, 8.1; 
salts, 1.7. From this composition it is seen that corn is 
a very valuable food, it also being rich in the phosphates. 
The varieties of corn have been much modified by culti- 
vation and the higher varieties have nearly reached per- 
fection. The more improved varieties contain less 
oil but more starch}'^ material : rice corn contains most 
oil, and Tuscarora most starch and no oil. 

The many vaiieties of sugar or sweet corn furnish in 
their green state a nutritious and delicious food ; the un- 
ripe gi^ains then contain large proportions of sugar, which 
is converted into starch as the grain ripens. The ripe 
corn may also be eaten in a parched state, as in some 
eastern countries, but with us it is gTOund and used in 
the form of meal. The whole grain is ground and in this 
state is sold as ' ' unbolted" meal ; when it is sifted and 



INDIGO. 113 

the bran removed it is known as " bolted" meal. The 
meal is largely used in the making of corn bread or 
" Johnny Cakes," or boiled and eaten in the form of a 
mush, when the grains of corn are roughly broken and 
the hull removed it is known as liominy ; it is prepared 
for use by boiling with water. When the corn is finely 
broken or crushed it is known as Samp^ and is used in 
the same manner as hominy. Hulled Corn is prepared 
by soaking the grains in lye to enable the hulls to be re- 
moved ; it is then thoroughly soaked in water and after- 
ward boiled until tender. Corn enters largely into the 
manufacture of whiskey and a great many distilleries arc 
employed in its production. 

Indigo, a vegetable dyestuff derived from numerous 
plants belonging to the order Leguminosese and natives 
of the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. 
The genus Indigofera contains over two hundred species, 
several of which yield the indigo of commerce. /. tinc- 
toria is the species most cultivated in the East, and is 
also cultivated in the West Indies. It is a small shrub 
from two to five feet high, with pinnate leaves and rose 
colored papihonaceous flowers. In India the seeds are 
sown in drills about a foot apart, during the rainy season, 
and the crop, being kept free from weeds, in the course of 
two or three months will be ready for cutting ; and dur- 
ing the rainy season a fresh crop may be cut every six 
weeks. The plants are not allowed to come into bloom 
as this would injure the qualit}^ of the indigo. It is 
therefore cut just before flowering, and tied up into bun- 
dles about five and a half feet in circumference, and car- 
ried as quickly as possible to the factory. 



114 INDIGO. 

If kept, even for a sliort time, and particularly in heaps, 
a sort of fermentation takes place, completely destroying 
the indigo. When brought to the factory these bundles 
are thrown into a large vat and strongly pressed down 
by means of bamboos and a stout crossbar ; the whole 
is then covered with water and allowed to steep for ten 
or twelve hours according to the state of the weather and 
the skill of the planter. This part of the process must 
be carefully watched, for if the steeping be continued too 
long the indigo will be much damaged or ' ' burnt" as it 
is called, and if too short the full amount of indigo will 
not be procured. The liquor is then drawn off into an- 
other vat where it is beaten and stin-ed with bamboos 
till it gi'anulates, which generally takes place in from one 
and a half to three hours, and requires the utmost atten- 
tion to stop the beating at the proper time, for if contin- 
ued too long the granules are again broken and liable 
to be lost. When the grains are properly formed a few 
pailfuls of cold water, or hme water, may be added to 
hasten the deposit, but the latter is said to injure the 
quahty of the indigo by throwing down foreign matter 
in connection with it. After the coloring matter has 
subsided the water is drawn off and the deposit is re- 
moved to a copper boiler and allowed to remain till it 
begins to ferment. It is then placed on a bamboo frame 
covered with cloth to serve as a filter and all the liquor 
that will is allowed to drain from it. It is then placed 
in proper frames and strongly pressed by means of 
screws ; it is now removed and cut into cakes of the 
proper size and placed in the drpng house. In some 
districts it is ready for the market in this fonn ; but in 



INDIGO. 115 

the interior of Bengal it is in this state loosely packed in 
boxes with hemp between the layers. It here undergoes 
a sort of sweating and is then removed to the drying 
house and, when thoroughly dry, repacked and sent to 
market. 

Another method of preparing indigo is by gathering 
the leaves and drying them in the sun and then storing. 
When a suflScient quantity has been collected they are 
steeped with six times their weight of water and stirred 
for two hours, till all the leaves sink ; the liquor is then 
drawn off and the indigo is procured as in the process 
above described. The species of indigo most cultivated 
in America are the Indigofera Anil, and the J. Gauti- 
nala. The former is a native of South America, but now 
gi'ows wild in the southern states as the remains of a 
former cultivation. The use of indigo as a dye was 
known in Italy as early as the eleventh century, the sup- 
ply being obtained from India. It was also brought back 
from America, the Mexicans knowing its use at the time 
of the discovery by the Spaniards. In the seventeenth 
century the trade with India assumed importance and 
considerable quantities were taken to Holland. But its 
use as a dye caused much complaint among the Germans 
on account of its superiority to the native woad. Its use 
was accordingly prohibited by the Diet in 1577, and it 
was denounced under the name of the " Devils Dye". 
Its use in both France and England was prohibited by 
law, and severe penalties were attached to its infringe- 
ments, and in the reign of Elizabeth persons were au- 
thorized to search for it and logwood and, to destroy 



116 INDIGO. 

both ; and it was not till tlie beginning of the eighteenth 
centmy that it came into general use. 

Asiatic indigo is brought from several parts of India 
and from Java and Manilla. The best Bengal indigo 
shipped from Calcutta is the superfine or light blue, in 
cubical cakes, so light as to float upon water, friable, 
soft, of clean fracture and of a beautiful copper color 
when rubbed with the nail. Merchants recognize sixteen 
grades in the Bengal Indigo, and twenty one in the Java 
variety. The Benjal and Java range from 40 to 80 per 
cent, of Indigo blue ; the remaining varieties var}- from 
10 to 37 per cent. Thej^ are Caromandel, Onde, Mad- 
ras, Manilla, Egyptian, Guatimala, Caraccas and Mexi- 
can. The best quality of indigo gives a glossy and pur- 
phsh red streak when rubbed b}^ the nail ; when the 
streak is dull and furrows on each side the quality is 
poor. The best kinds will also float upon water. It is 
insoluble in water or alcohol, but is readil}^ dissolved hj 
sulphuric acid, which, without destropng its color, so far 
alters its nature as to render it freel}^ soluble in water 
and thus afibrds a convenient method of appl3ing it to the 
purposes of dj^eing. A simple solution of this in water 
is known as Saxon Blue, which is used as a blueing for 
laundry purposes ; the sulphuric acid is rendered neutral 
by the addition of the acetate of soda. When carbonate 
of soda is added to a sulphuric solution of indigo a pre- 
cipitate is formed which being filtered is sold as a paste 
or a dry powder, or dry blueing ; this is also soluble in 
water. Indigo is sometimes adulterated with starch, 
Prussian blue, rosin, ground dyewoods etc. The tests 
of the properties of indigo blue or " Indigotine " in sam- 



INK. 117 

pies of commercial indigo, are quite difficult and should 
be referred to the chemist for determination. In 1875 
the United States imported 885,752 lbs., the majority 
coming from the British East Indies, the Spanish Pos- 
sessions and Mexico. In 1871 the imports were 1,994, 
752 lbs., showing a decrease in four years of over 
1,000,000 lbs. 

Ink, the name given to any colored fluid used for pro- 
ducing characters in writing or printing. From the es- 
sential difference, both in composition and use, inks are 
naturally divided into two classes, writing and printing 
inks. Writing ink as used by the ancients appears from 
the best knowledge which we are able to obtain to have 
closely resembled the ink which is at present in use in 
China and India, being either a combination of lamp- 
black with glue or gum, or the black fluid secreted"T)y the 
cuttle fish. Manuscripts written from the 5th to the 
12th century, are generally found much more legible than 
those written in the 15th and 16th centuries, which is sup- 
posed to result from the use in the older manuscripts of 
ink of which carbon was the base, whilst the more re- 
cent ones were written with ink made from nutgalls and 
iron. 

The writing inks in use in modern times are of great 
varietj^ both in color and composition. The essential 
requisites of a good writing ink are permanency of char- 
acter, close adherence to the paper, without a tendency 
to destroy it, a consistency which will allow it to flow 
freel}' from the pen, a good legible color, together with 
the negative virtues of not moulding, not corroding the 
pen if of steel, and not depositing a sediment upon stand- 



118 INK. 

ing. The black ink in most common use is made from the 
infusion of nutgalls and copperas with the addition of 
gum, sugar, or mucilage to hold the coloring matter in 
suspension. The nutgall contains two organic acids, viz . 
gallic acid and tannic acid, which unite with the iron of the 
copperas, (sulphate of iron) forming the tanno-gallate 
of iron. As the gallate of kon is of a much deeper 
black, and also much more permanent than the tannate, 
or gallo-tannate, it is usual to leave the infusion of nut 
galls exposed for some days to the action of the air, 
whereby the tannic acid is converted into galhc acid. 
When the infusion is then mixed with a solution of cop- 
peras, there is produced a deep black powdered precipi- 
tate of the gallate, and gallo-tannate of iron, which quick- 
ly settles to the bottom of the hquid in the form of sedi- 
ment<<' It is consequently necessar^^ in the manufacture 
of ink, that some means be adopted for holding it in sus- 
pension ; this is usually accomplished by the addition of 
a small quantity of gum to the mixture. A few drops of 
carbolic acid, or some essential oil, are frequently added 
to prevent the formation of mould. The proportions in 
which the various materials are used are almost as vari- 
ous as the number of manufacturers, whilst the recipes 
for this class of inks alone, are simply without number. 
Drs. Lewis and Ribaucoui't, seem to have been the first 
chemists to study carefully the character and composition 
of ink. They made extended series of experiments 
about the close of the last centur}^, which added much to 
oui' knowledge of the subject, and led to great improve- 
ment in the quality of ink subsequently produced. Dr. 



INK. 119 

Lewis recommended the following proportions as giving 
the best ink. 

Powdered copperas, - - 1 oz. 

Ground logwood. - - - 1 " 
Bruised galls, - - - 3 " 

Gum-arabic, - - - 1 " 

White wine, or acetic acid, - 1 quart. 
Although a less proportion of galls gave an ink of 
good color when used, it subsequently turned to a yellow- 
ish brown ; and whilst water was found to answer for or- 
dinary purposes, white wine, and still better, acetic acid, 
gave an ink of much blacker color. Dr. Ure, who made 
a careful study of the composition of ink, gives the fol- 
lowing recipe for the best black ink. 

Nutgalls, - - - 12 pounds. 

Copperas, - - - 5 '' 

Gum Senegal, - - 5 " 

Water, - - - 12 gallons. 

This makes an ink much stronger than most of that 
sold, and it will still be of good quahty if the quantity 
of water be considerably increased. One of the great 
objections to this class of inks is their tendency to mould 
if gum be used in considerable quantity, and to deposit 
their coloring matter if it be not. To avoid this difficul- 
ty it is now usual to add sulphate of indigo which dis- 
solves the coloring matter, producing a clear solution 
which flows freely from the pen, and retains its fluidity, 
especially when steel pens are used, to a much greater 
degree. Stark, after having manufactured ink for four- 
teen years, and tested 229 diflerent kinds, declares his 
decided preference for the gallnut-copperas ink, made 



120 INK. 

clear by the use of sulphate of indigo. He recommends 
as the result of his experience, the following as the best. 
Best gallnuts, - - - 12 oz. 

Copperas, - - - - 8 " 

Gum arable, - - 4 to 6 " 

Sulphate of indigo, - - 8 fluid " 
Water, . . _ l gallon. 

As the use of steel pens injures the quality of iron 
inks, he advises that legal, and other important docu- 
ments, be written with gold or quill pens. Ail inks of 
this character are hghter, usually blue or greenish, when 
first written with, but rapidly turn black by exposure to 
the air. Arnold's and most of the other favorite fluids 
of the day belong to this class of inks. If these inks 
become too thick for use, by long standing, the best fluid 
with which to dilute them, is a strong decoction of coflee, 
which will give an excellent color and lustre to the ink. 
Vanadium black ink, was first proposed by Berzelius, 
who recommended the use of vanadate of ammonia, with 
infusions of nutgalls. This furnishes a fine black ink 
which flows freely from the pen, does not deposit any sed- 
iment, and will not coiTode a steel pen. 

Chi'ome black ink is made by adding one part of chro- 
mate of potassa to 1000 parts of strong decoction of log- 
wood, prepared by steeping 22 pounds of logwood in a 
suflScient quantity of water to make fourteen gallons of 
the decoction. The ink thus made is very black, cannot 
be washed out with water, will not corrode steel pens, 
and weak acids will not aflect the writing. It is however 
hable to gelatinize. Copying inks which are intended to 
give an impression of the writing to a second or third 



INK. 121 

sheet of paper by moistening and pressing upon the orig- 
inal, are frequently made like the ordinary gallnut inks, 
with the addition of gum and sugar in much larger pro- 
portions. A great variety of other preparations is also 
used, one of the most highly esteemed being made of four 
parts by weight of logwood extract, dissolved in a mix- 
ture of 70 parts of water and 60 parts of vinegar, to 
which is added three parts copperas, two parts alum, two 
parts gum arable, and four parts of sugar. This gives 
a fine violet ink. A valuable French coppying ink is 
made from 30 grammes of logwood extract, and 7.5 
grms. of crystallized carbonate of soda boiled with 240 
grms. of water, to which is added with vigorous stirring, 
30 grms. of glycerine, and, after the liquid has become 
cold, one gramme of neutral carbonate of potassa and 
7.5 grms. of gum arable, previously made into a paste, 
are dissolved in it. When this ink is used the paper 
upon which the copy is to be made need not be moist- 
ened. 

Colored inks of great variety have long been in use, 
but the introduction of aniline in recent years has greatly 
added to the permanence and beauty of tint to be found 
in such inks. Red inks have been made principally from 
cochineal and Brazil-wood, but aniline is now rapidly re- 
placing them. The best carmine ink is made by digest- 
ing cochineal in water, to which is added a small quanti- 
ty of cream of tartar and alum, and, after the impurities 
have settled, pouring off the clear fluid and allowing it to 
stand a considerable time to settle, when the sediment is 
removed and dissolved in caustic ammonia. The ink thus 
produced is very brilliant, but rapidly fades when exposed 



122 JELLIES. 

to the air, and must be kept in closely closed bottles. 
The older blue inks were usually made by dissolving Prus- 
sian blue in oxalic acid and water. The production and 
use of aniline colors is a growth entirely of the last 
twenty years, j^et the}^ have alread}^ to a great extent re- 
placed the coloring matters previously in use in most of 
the arts. The most beautiful red, purple, violet and green 
inks are already made from it, whilst very much remains 
yet to be done to develop and perfect them, for which 
there are materials which promise the most striking re- 
sults. These inks are mostly prepared by simply dissolv- 
ing the anihnes of commerce, of the required color, in 
water. Green aniline ink is the most strikingly beautiful. 

Printers' ink is made of lamp-black held in suspension 
in linseed oil, to which is added rosin, turpentine, and a 
small quantity of soap. The oil must be claiified with 
gTeat care and is boiled for a considerable length of time 
and at the same time burned by setting fire to the vapor 
which escapes from it. After burning a short time the 
flame is extinquished by covering the boiling oil. After 
the oil is prepared, the lamp-black and other materials are 
mixed with it and the whole thoroughly ground, when it is 
ready for use. 

Indehble ink, used for marking clothing, is usually a 
carbon ink, the base being lampblack, which is prepared 
for use in a variety of ways. A good indelible ink is 
also prepared from anihne, and the juice of the anacar- 
dium nut is also used for the same purpose. 

Jellies, a term applied to the evaporated juice of fruits, 
or meats, boiled with sugar to a consistencj" between 
solid and fluid. Jellies are made from almost all fruits. 



KEROSENE. 123 

that of the currant being especially desirable. Jellies are 
generally put up for market in small glass cups of any de- 
sired size. Almost all of the jellies in market are of ar- 
tificial manufacture. Gelatine is the base generally used 
in the manufacture of these jellies, flavored by the vari- 
ous extracts, (many of these latter being also artificial) , 
aud are then labelled currant, strawberry, etc., as the de- 
mand may be. 

Kerosene, is a mixture of several liquid hydrocarbo- 
nates used for purposes of illumination. It has the con- 
sistency of the essential oils, a burning taste, and aro- 
matic odor. When properly refined it is nearly or quite 
colorless by transmitted fight, but quite fluorescent by re- 
flected Mght, giving beautiful violet-blue tints. It is at 
present obtained in immense quantities from crude petro- 
leum, by a process of refining which consists simply in 
separating it from other related products with which it is 
found combined. It may, however, be produced by the 
destructive distillation at low temperature of almost any 
organic or mineral product containing carbon and hydro- 
gen, and was in fact so produced in considerable quan- 
tities before petroleum had been discovered in sufficient 
quantities to render its preparation from that material of 
any importance commercially. It was in fact the pro- 
duction and use of kerosene from other sources which 
first called attention to petroleum (which had long been 
known but made almost no use of) as a source of s-upply 
for this already valuable illuminant. 

Kerosene has been produced in quantity from bitu- 
minous coal, bitmninous shale, asphalt, malthas, wood, 
rosin, and various oils, especially menhaden oil. The 



124 KEROSENE. 

first mention which we find of the possibility of thus pro- 
curing this material is in the specification of a patent 
granted in England to Thomas Hancock, Martin Eele 
and William Portlock in 1694, for " a way to extract and 
make great quantities of pitch, tar and oyle out of a sort 
of stone." The stone thus referred to was a bituminous 
shale found in considerable quantities in England and 
Wales. These men do not, however, seem to have made 
use of their process to extract oil in gi'eat quantities. 

Another patent was issued in 1716 to the Messrs. Betton 
of Slirewsbury, for a process for extracting oil from the 
black, pitchy rock found overlying the coal beds, which 
consisted in grinding them to powder and subjecting them 
to destructive distillation. The oil thus obtained was 
used in medicine, and we find it mentioned in 1761 in 
Lewis' Materia Medica under the name of British or pe- 
troleum oil. Any adequate knowledge of the use and val- 
ue of this class of hydrocarbonates was, however, first 
arrived at and given to the world by Reichenback of Mo- 
ravia, who made extended investigations into the charac- 
ter and properties of the numerous products obtained 
from the destructive distillation of organic bodies. He 
applied the name eupione to a mixture of hydrocarbons 
such as constitutes the modern kerosene and called 
attention to its superior illuminating qualities, and to the 
fact that it might be brought into entensive use for do- 
mestic pmposes if some cheap method could be found for 
separating it from the other products of distillation. His 
researches attracted much attention and were extensively 
published, appearing in several scientific journals in 
1830-31. At about the same time we find the extraction 



KEROSENE. 125 

of oil from bituminous substances being entered upon to 
a considerable extent in France. In 1832, Blum and Mo- 
nense took out a patent for the application of these oils 
to illuminating purposes. Sellique seems to have been 
the first to have manufactured them in large quantities 
for illuminating purposes, he having commenced opera- 
tions in 1834, and in the six years from 1838 to 1843 
manufactured 15,000 barrels (40 gallons each) of shale 
oil. Abraham Gesuer, in Prince Edward's Island, made 
oil from coal in 1846 and was the first to give it the name 
kerosene. In 1850 James Young, of Glasgow, Scotland, 
introduced paraffine oil which he made from the Torbane 
Hill mineral, or boghead coal. This manufacture proved 
very profitable and Mr. Young rapidly extended his oper- 
ations and in 1854 his productions amounted to 8,000 
gallons a week and his yearly sales to £ 100,000. His 
success soon led others to embark in the manufacture, 
and coal oil factories rapidly sprang up in England and 
were also introduced into the United States. 

The first factory in this country was that of the Kero- 
sene Oil Co., built upon Newtown Creek opposite New 
York City in the year 1854. This factory, and others 
which were soon after built, used principally the boghead 
coal of Scotland imported for the purpose, although 
cannel-coal from Nova Scotia and from western coal 
mines as also Trinidad pitch, candle tar, and numerous 
other substances were employed. Albertite from Nova 
Scotia was found to yield the oil very abundantly but its 
use was monopolized by a single company. The cannel- 
coal found along the Ohio river was found to yield oil in 
remunerative quantities and factories were built in Perry, 



126 KEROSENE. 

LicMng, Mahoning, and Coshocton counties and others 
in Kentucky. The manufacture was increasing rapidly 
and becoming of great importance when in 1859 the 
Pennsylvania Rock Oil Co. " struck oil" in Venango Co., 
and the manufacture of coal oil was doomed to a speedy 
death. On the first of January, 1860, there were oj the 
Atlantic border 40 coal oil factories, which were producing 
oil at the rate of 200,000 barrels per annum and at least 
25 factories in Ohio besides others in Kentuck}^, and West 
Virginia. 

These factories were soon after that date all converted 
into refineries for extracting kerosene from the crude pe- 
troleum obtained from wells. As has been already men- 
tioned the existence of petroleum had long been known 
and it had been collected and used to some extent in va- 
rious parts of the world. The earhest evidence of its use 
is in the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon in the construction 
of both which cities an asphalt mortar (the slime of the 
Old Testament) was used, the asphalt for which was a 
partially evaporated petroleum. The oil from Arigentum 
was burned in lamps as long ago as the time of Phny, 
under the name of Sicihan oil. In this country petroleimi 
was used by the Indians for various purposes under the 
name of Seneca oil, and was formerly collected by the 
white people, to some extent, and used as medicine. 
When, however, it was first obtained in boring salt weEs 
on the Muskingum River, Ohio, it was regarded as an 
unmixed evil, as it interfered seriously with the manu- 
facture of a good quahty of salt, and was thought to be 
entirely worthless. It was not until kerosene obtained 
,from coal and shale had become of importance, and lamps 



KEROSENE. 127 

suitable for burning it had been invented, that attention 
was called to petroleum as a source of supply of this il- 
luminant. 

The Pennsylvania Rock Oil Co. was formed in 1854 for 
the purpose of collecting petroleum as it was found floating 
upon the surface of the water in ditches and pools along 
Oil Creek in Venango Co., Penn. This method of ob- 
taining the oil, however, proved too slow and expensive, 
and in 1858 Col. Drake, the superintendent of the com- 
pany, commenced to bore in the same locality an artesian 
well for oil. On the 28th of August, 1859, oil was found 
at a depth of 71 feet, in this well, which immediately be- 
gan to }ield at the rate of 400 gallons per day, the pro- 
duct selling at 55 cents a gallon. There was at once 
great excitement. Crowds rushed to the oil region. 
Every one was anxious to invest his money in companies 
which were at once formed to bore for oil. Wells in great 
numbers were bored, many of them proving wonderfully 
productive. No mines ever afforded fortunes so rapidly. 
Some wells yielded $ 20,000 worth of oil per day, and at 
almost no expense, the oil flowing from the mouth of the 
well so that pumping was unnecessary. The poor farmers 
of the ^dcinity at once found themselves wealthy, single 
farms sold for $ 500,000 to $ 1,000,000. The production 
in 1860 was 650,000 barrels of crude oil and in 1861 it 
reached 2,000,000 barrels, since which time it has steadily 
increased until now it exceeds 10,000,000 barrels per an- 
num. Of course the price rapidly declined until the pro- 
duction has grown into a steady and thriving industry-, 
furnishing the world with an illuminating material entirely 
eclipsing in cheapness, convenience and adaptability to 



128 KEROSENE. 

universal use any and all materials previously used for 
this purpose. More than three fourths of all the petroleum 
of commerce is obtained from the hmited ' ' oil region" in 
the north-west corner of Pennsylvania. Other deposits 
are found in West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Canada and 
Southern California, as also upon the banks of the Cas- 
pian Sea, in Burmah, in Italy and especially in the Dutch 
East Indies. 

In some places it is found flowing from the earth in the 
form of springs, but in most cases, as in Pennsylvania, 
it is obtained by boring artesian wells, from some of 
which it flows freely, even rising to a considerable height 
above the mouth of the well ; and from others it is pump- 
ed by steam power. Petroleum is found in rocks of nearly 
all geological formations, from the Lower Silurian to the 
present epoch. The Devonian rocks furnish the oils of 
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada. It is usually found as- 
sociated with shales, though often permeating sand and 
lime stones and accumulating in cavities of other rocks. 
It is generally believed to have originated from the de- 
composition of vegetable and mineral remains, diffused in 
a finely divided condition through fine mud and clay. 
The theory that it originated from the natural distillation 
of coal is no longer held by scientific men, as there is no 
evidence of heat to be found in the oil-bearing strata. 
Crude petroleum as obtained from the weUs varies some- 
what in character in different localities but is usually of 
a dark greenish brown color, thin hquid consistency, and 
offensive odor. Chemically it consists of a mixture of a 
great number of hydrocarbons most of which belong to 
two groups, whose general formulae are CJi-i^x+i and C^Haa. 



KEROSENE. 



129 



The average proportion of these two elements in the mix- 
ture is Carbon 85 pr. ct., Hydrogen 15 pr. ct. The hy- 
drocarbons of which the mixtui'e is composed differ from 
each other physically chiefly in volatility, specific gravity 
and inflammabiUty. Some are so volatile as to very rap- 
idly evaporate, even at very low temperatures, and so in- 
flammable as to render it dangerous to approach an open 
tank of petroleum with a flame ; others require a temper- 
ature of 800° or 900° F. to vaporize them and can be 
ignited only when raised to a high temperature. The 
volatihty and inflammability vary with the specific grav- 
it}^, the light oils being volatile whilst the heavier, denser 
oils have high boiling points. The two series to which 
these compounds belong have not been fully studied as 
yet and the composition of the heavier compounds espec- 
ially is not at the present time fuUy known. 

The two following tables give, so far as have been stud- 
ied, the composition of the compounds found in the two 
groups, together with their boiling points and specific 
gravities. 
The ParaflSnes, or Marsh-gas Series of Hydrocarbons. 



NAMES. 


Formulae Car- 


Hydro- 


Boiling 


Specific 


Density 




CnH2Q+2 toon. 


gen. 


point. 


gravity. 


Baumfi. 


Methane Marsh- gas 


C H, 


75.00 


25.00 


Gas 






Ethane, 


C2 Hg 


80.00 


20.00 


Gas 






Propane, 


CsHs 


81.81 


18.19 


Gas 






Butane, 


C4 Hio 


82.80 


17.20 


34° F. 


0.600 


106° 


Quintane, 


C5 H12 


83.33 


16.67 


86° 


0.628 


98° 


Hexane, 


Cs Hi4 


83.72|16.28 


154° 


0.669 


86.5° 


Heptane, 


C7 H16 


84.00 


16.00 


200° 


0.699 


72.0° 


Octane, 


Ca Hi8 


84.21 


15.79 


242° 


0.726 


64.5° 


Nonane, 


C9 H20 


84.38 


15.62 


278° 


0.741 


60.5° 



1'30 



KEROSENE. 



Decane, 

Endecane, 

Dodecane, 

Tridecane, 

Tetradecane, 

Pentadecane. 



Cii H24 

0x2 H26 
^13 -"-28 

^15 "32 



84.51 

84.61 
84.70 
84.78 
84.85 
84.90 



15.49 
15.39 
15.30 
15.22 
15.15 
15.10 



321° 

360° 
388° 
422° 
460° 
490° 



0.757156.5^ 



0.765 
0.776 
0.792 



54.5° 
52.5° 

48.0° 



The Olefines, or Ethyline Series of Hydrocarbons. 



NAMES. 



•Formulae 



Boiling 
points. 



Specific 
gravity. 



Density 
Baume. 



Ethylene, 

Propylene,.. . . 

Butylene, 

Annylene, ... . 
Hexylene, . . . . 
Heptylene, . . . 

Octylene, 

Nonylene, . . . . 
Dicatylene, .. . 
Endecatylene, 
Dodecatylene, 
Decatriylene, . 

Cetene, 

Cerotine, .. . . , 
Meline 



C, H, 


Gas. 




Ca He 


0°F. 




C, Hs 


37.4° 




^5 Hio 


95.0° 




Ce H12 


156° 




C7 Hi4 


203° 




Cs H16 


240° 




C9 Hjg 


284° 




Cio H20 


343° 




Cn H22 


384° 


.782 


C12 H24 


421° 




Ci's H26 


455° 


.791 


Cis H32 


527° 




C27 H54 




Solid. 


C30 Hgo 


707° 


Sohd. 



50° 

48° 

Sohd. 
Sohd. 



Besides the members of these two groups there are sev- 
eral other hydrocarbons of very similar nature and com- 
position which are sometimes found in petroleum, but not 
in sufficient quantities to render them of much importance. 

Only the members of the middle portion of these two 
groups are fitted for burning in lamps for illuminating 
purposes, the lighter oils or napthas as they are called 
being inflammable to a dangerous degree, and so ex- 
tremely volatile as whenever exposed to the atmosphere 



KEROSENE. 131 

to give off vapors which form, with the air, explosive 
mixtures, thuS often leading when used in any way to 
the most serious accidents. The heavy oils forming the 
higher members of the series, on the other hand do not 
burn readil}^ in lamps, partly from their lesser degeee of 
inflanunability, but more especially from the presence of 
solid paraffine and tarry matters which gum up, and ob- 
struct the action of the wicks. To effect the separation 
of these valuable members of the series from the lighter 
napthas and heavier paraffines, the crude petroleum is 
subjected to the processes of refining which consist essen- 
tially of three parts : I, Fractional distillation, II, Agi- 
tation with sulphuric acid, III, Agitation with hydrate of 
soda or ammonia. 

For distillation the crude petroleum is placed in large 
iron stills, made of boiler plate and resembling steam 
boilers. These stills are heated in the same manner as 
steam boilers, and as the temperature of the petroleum 
rises the more volatile compounds are converted into va- 
por which passes off into condensers made of gas pipe, 
placed in long wooden boxes filled with cold water. 
These boxes are usually 4 by 4 feet in cross section, and 
200 to 250 feet long and in the bottoms of them are 
placed the condensing pipes running their entire length. 
A stream of cold water enters at one end of the box and 
is discharged after having become heated at the end 
nearest the still. The condensing pipes all end in a re- 
ceiving house, where the products of distillation which 
have become condensed are received in troughs from 
which they are run into cisterns for storage, different cis- 



132 KEROSENE. 

terns "being employed to contain different qualities, which 
are determined principally by specific gi-a^ty. 

The compounds which are first vaporized are not con- 
densed in the condensers, and are not saved but allowed 
to escape into the air in the form of gas. Sometimes 
aside from the cold water condenser a mixture of ice and 
salt is used b}^ which means a very volatile oil called 
E-higolene is condensed and saved in the hquid form. It 
is, however, usually allowed to escape with the other 
gases. It boils at 65° F. and evaporates so rapidly as 
to produce intense cold, and is from this property used 
by dentists and surgeons as an anaesthetic, destrojing 
the sensibihty of the part to which it is apphed by freez- 
ing it. It is exceedingly dangerous being one of the 
most volatile and infiammable hquids known, whilst its 
vapor forms an explosive mixture with air. 

The first products of distillation which are condensed 
by cold water have a specific gravity of about 95° Baume 
and as the distillation proceeds, the product becomes 
heavier and heavier. It is usually all received into one 
tank until the density reaches about 63° Baume. The 
material thus obtained is known as crude naptha, and is 
afterward redistilled and separated into I ; Gasoline^ the 
hghtest, used in air gas machines for producing burning 
gas. n ; Naptha, used for oil cloths, etc. Ill ; Benzine, 
used for cleaning, for paints, varnishes, etc. 

When the density of the liquid which comes over from 
the still reaches 60° to 65° B. it is turned into the kero- 
sene tank, where it is stored until the density reaches a 
point varying with the quality of oil to be obtained from 
38° to 51° B. The heavy oils which are then coming 



KEROSENE. 133 

over contain a large amount of paraffine, and the stream 
is turned into the paraffine oil tank, where it is allowed 
to flow until the process of distillation is complete, when 
nothing remains in the still but coke. 

The paraffine oil is chilled to solidify the paraffine, and 
then pressed in cloths through which the oil is expelled, 
which is used for lubricating and other purposes, and the 
sohd crude paraffine is left folded in the cloths from 
which it is removed and purified. Frequently the last 
part of this process is varied by removing the tarry resi- 
idue from the still when oil fit for the kerosene tank 
ceases to come over, and transferring it to other retorts 
where by slow distillation the heavy oils are " cracked" 
or converted into the lighter oils, and the product is 
mixed with the crude petroleum used for charging anoth- 
er still. When this is done, as is the case at many of 
the refineries of Cleveland and Pittsburgh, no lubricating 
oil or paraffine is produced. 

The product obtained in the kerosene tank is removed 
and treated with sulphuric acid, to destroy the offensive 
odor and also to remove the small amount of coloring- 
matter which it stiU contains. About two per cent., by 
measure, of acid is used which after being thoroughly 
shaken up with the oil, causes a tarry sediment to sepa- 
rate upon standing. The clear oil is then carefully de- 
canted off and a quantity of hydrate of soda or ammonia 
is added to it, to remove the last traces of acid, after 
which the oil is ready to be barrelled and marketed. 

The following table given by Prof. Chandler gives a 
clear idea of fractional distillation and its various pro- 
ducts, together with the yield of each. 



134 



KEROSENE. 



Products of Distillation of the Crude Petroleum. 





Limits of 


Limits of Specific 


Boiling 


Yield 


PRODUCTS. 


density, 


Average 


grav- 


per 




Baume.^ 


Baume. 


ity. 


point. 


cent 


1. Gases, uncondensed, 












2. Cymogene, 


115° to 105° 


110° 


.600 


32° F. 




3. Rhigolene, 


105 to 95 


100° 


.625 


65° 




4. Gasolene, 


95 to 80 


87 


.664 


120 


IVa 


5. Naptha, refined, 


80 to 65 


73 


.700 


175 


10 


6. Benzine, 


65 to 60 


63 


.750 


250 


4 


7. Kerosene, 


60 to 38 


46 


.807 


340 


55 


8. Lubricating oil, 


38 to 25 


30 


.885 


425 


17M 


9. Paraffine, 










2 


10. Cake, gases, & loss. 










10 



When the process of cracking is resorted to. Professor 
Chandler says that the above oil would 3rLeld 

Crude Naptha, 20 per cent. 



Kerosene, 
Coke and loss, 



66 
14 



100 
but the Cleveland refiners claim considerably better re- 
sults — that they get 70 to 75 barrels of kerosene from 100 
barrels of crude petroleum. From the character of the 
process of refining it is evident- that the quality of the oil 
obtained will depend very much upon the point at which 
the oil flowing from the condenser is turned into the ker- 
osene tank, and the point at which it is again turned away 
and directed to the paraffine oil tank. If in the first 
place the oil be run into the kerosene tank at too early a 
stage of the process of distillation, the kerosene will con- 
tain a quantity of the Ughter volatile oils which will form 
vapor in the lamp when burning, and, mixing with the air 
in the upper portion of the partiall}^ filled lamp, will form 
an explosive mixture liable to cause the explosion of the 
lamp and produce most serious results. The oil will also 



KEROSENE. 135 

be rendered very much more inflammable, and in case of 
the accidental breaking of the lamp, or the oil becoming 
spilled in any other way, it is much more likely to take 
fire, and when burning is much more difficult to subdue. 
It was thus from the presence of the more volatile oils 
that the kerosene formerly in use, and still used in many 
parts of the country, was the cause of so many lament- 
able accidents resulting in the loss of great numbers of 
lives and the destruction of untold millions of property. 
Upon the other hand if the oil from the condenser be 
conducted into the kerosene tank until the process has 
reached too late a stage, the oil will contain a large 
amount of paraffine, which greatly injures its illuminating 
power, principally b}' gumming up the wick and destroy- 
ing its capillarity. The refiners are tempted to go to 
both of these extremes by the fact that there is but small 
demand for naptha and paraffine oils compared with the 
amount produced and they consequently bring but a very 
low price, whilst kerosene, being used in great quantity, 
brings a much higher price. Paraffine oil is worth about 
ten cents per gallon, and naptha but about three or four 
cents, when kerosene is selling at twenty-five cents or 
upward. 

In view of the dangerous character of much of the oil 
in use, many of the States of this country, as also Great 
Britain, have passed laws requiring that all oil sold or 
used within their boundaries should be submitted to cer- 
tain tests to determine its quality. These tests were for- 
merly two, ?i flash test and Sifire test or burning test. 

The flash test is employed to determine the lowest tem- 
perature at which it gives off inflammable vapor, and the 



136 KEROSENE. 

fire test, or more properly termed burning test, to deter- 
mine the lowest temperature at which the oil will take 
fire. Both are Yerj simple of apphcation. To appl}^ the 
flash test the oil is placed in a small vessel which is plac- 
ed in a water bath and slowly heated. A thermometer 
whose bulb is just covered b}^ the oil serves to show its 
temperature. A small flame is then at frequent inter- 
vals passed somewhat quickly over the surface of the oil 
and the temperature at which a flash of burning vapor is 
first produced is termed the flashing point of this oil. To 
avoid variations in the result, which may be caused by 
draughts of au' carrying away the vapor as it is formed, 
and by the difierent distances from the surface and dif- 
ference in speed at which the flame may be moved, the 
vessel holding the oil should have a chamber attached 
above the oil to retain the vapor, when, if the flame is 
passed into it, if the oil is giving oflT inflammable vapor 
in sensible quantities, its presence will be revealed by a 
flash. Particular forms of testers are required to be 
used by. some States. To apply the burning test it is 
only necessary to slowly heat the oil and to note the 
lowest temperature at which a burning sphnter plunged 
into the oil will, instead of being extinguished, set the oil 
on fire. The burning test is not now generally consider- 
ed as valuable as the flash test, and has been abolished 
from the statutes in England and in some of the Amer- 
ican States. 

There is a considerable difference of opinion as to what 
is a safe oil to use as determined by the flash test, many 
holding that as the air in our rooms rarely if ever reaches 
a temperature of 100° F. that an oil which will not flash 



KEROSENE. 137 

below this point is safe to use ; but by numerous experi- 
ments published in the American Chemist for August, 
1872, it is shown that the oil in lamps frequently rises 
much above this point. But even this does not deter- 
mine the limit of danger, for it is well known that the 
brass top of the lamp becomes much more highly heated, 
and the oil is liable to be splashed against this top and 
raised much above the temperature of the mass of oil in 
the lamp, in which case vapor will be produced though it 
were not when the lamp was at rest. It is also necessary 
to take into this consideration the fact that accidents of 
various kinds, lil^e the breaking of lamps, will happen, 
and it is unquestionably true that the higher the flashing 
pointy the safer is the oil; 100° is evidently too low, 120° 
is certainly not too low, and 140° is unquestionably better 
than either. The flashing point fixed upon by the various 
states as a test below which oils are not allowed to be 
sold, varies from 100° to 140°, most of them fixing the 
test at 100° or 110°, whilst a few have adopted 120° and 
one only, (Michigan) , 140°. These laws have very greatly 
decreased the danger from the use of kerosene, and where 
the higher tests have been enforced accidents from its use 
have almost if not entirely disappeared. 

Where the higher tests have been required, as espe- 
cially in Michigan, the refiners have endeavored to create 
a prejudice against the high test oils and at the same 
time largely increase their profits b}^, instead of running 
less of the light oils into their kerosene, keeping the quan- 
tity of light oils equal to that in the low test kerosenes, 
and bringing up the test to the point required b}^ law by 
adding the dense paraffine oils. They have thus added 



138 



LAED. 



large!}' to their profits both upon the light and heavy oils, 
and at the same time, by fui-nishing a standard test oil 
which upon account of the paraflSne present burns but 
ver}^ poorly, have induced many people to believe that 
a high test oU is necessaril}^ a poor burning oil, which is 
not by any means the case. 

To remedy this evil the Legislature of Michigan, at its 
last session, amended the law by adding a paraffine test 
which requires that the oil shall remain colorless and 
transparent when cooled for ten minutes to a temperature 
of 20° F. The effect of the present law is to furnish the 
people of Michigan with an entirelj- safe oil of excellent 
illuminating quality, at a price but httle above that of the 
old death-deahng article. 

The following table, prepared by Professor Chandler, 
gives the production and ex^^ort in Pennsylvania from the 
year 1859 to 1875, inclusive. 



Year. 



Product'on in 
barrels. 



Average 

price for 

year at 

wells. 



Total value 
at wells. 



Exported, 
crude or its 
equivalent, 
in barrels. 



Value of ex- 
ported at 
weUs. 



1859 


3,200 


$13.00 


$ 41,664 


■ 1860 


650,000 


6.72 


4,368,000 


. 1861 


2,113,600 


2.73 


5.770,128 


1862 


3,056,606 


1.68 


1,135,098 


1863 


2,611,359 


3.99 


10,419,322 


1864 


2,116,184 


9.66 


20,442.318 


. 1865 


3,497,712 


6.57 


22,979,967 


1866 


3,597,527 


3.73 


13,418,775 


■ 1867 


3,347,306 


3.18 


10,644,443 


1868 


3,715,741 


4.15 


15,420,325 


- 1869 


4,215,010 


5.85 


24,657,750 


1870 


5,659,000 


3.80 


21,504,200 


1871 


5,795,000 


4.35 


25,208,250 


1872 


6,539,103 


3.75 


24,521,636 


1873 


9,879,455 


1.84 


18,178,197 


1874 


10,910,303 


1.17 


12,765,054 


1875 


8,619,639 


1.21 


10,429,763 


Total. 


76,326,733 




245,704,880 



27,812 


75,926 


272,192 


457,282 


706,268 


2,818,009 


796,824 


7,697,319 


745,113 


4,895,556 


1,685,761 


6,287,888 


1,676,300 


5,330,634 


2,429,498 


10,082,416 


2,568,713 


15,026,971 


3,530,068 


13,414,2.58 


3,890,326 


16,922,918 


4,276,660 


16,037,475 


4,981,441 


9,165,851 


4,903,970 


5.737,644 


5,200,000 


6,292,000 


37,690,971 


20,242,147 



Lard. The oUy part of hog-'s fat separated from the 



LARD. 139 

tissue by means of heat, at the temperature of boiling 
water, and commonly with the addition of a little water. 
The process of extracting the lard is known as rendering. 
The best lard is obtained from the fat surrounding the 
kidneys, but the lard of commerce is derived from the en- 
tire fat of the animal. To render the lard more firm, va- 
rious adulterating substances are added, as mutton suet, 
potato flour, starch and lime. Alum is also added to 
increase its whiteness. Water is also used to adulterate 
lard, often as high as twelve per cent. The presence of 
water and its quantity may be determined by submitting 
a weighed portion to a moderate heat when the water 
will escape in bubbles. The loss of weight will deter- 
mine the amount of water that was added. If starch is 
present, it may be detected by putting a small piece of 
lard in a solution of iodine, and if starch is present it will 
turn the solution a deep blue, or even black. The amount 
of adulterating material is often as high as twenty-five 
per cent, and consists mostly of some starch}' material. 
Lard as generally prepared is run into kegs, barrels or 
tierces, but in England the best qualities are collected in 
bladders. In this country it is also put up in small cad- 
dies of several pounds weight. 

Pure lard should be firm and white, and free from 
taste or smell. It should melt at 212° F. without bub- 
bling, and the melted lard should be nearly as clear as 
water, and should deposit no sediment. The melting 
point of lard varies from 78° to 87° F. The composition 
of lard is 62 parts oleine to 38 of stearine andpalmatine, 
the former, called lard oil, being used for lubricating ma- 
chinery and illumination, and the latter for the manufac- 



140 LAUREL LEAVES LEAD PENCILS. 

ture of candles. The manufactui'e of lard oil is carried 
on to an immense extent in Chicago and Cincinnati. A 
large part of this oil is sent to France where it is used to 
adulterate olive oil, to the amount of 60 or 70 per cent, 
and is then returned as pui-e olive oil. Lard is exten- 
sively used in culinary operations as an article of food, 
and is the chief material used in pharmacy for forming 
ointments and cerates, for the latter purpose only the 
best lard is used and is difficult to obtain. When lard 
is mixed with rosin in certain propoi-tions, it forms an 
excellent application for leather and for lubricating pis- 
tons of a pump, as it is found to protect the brass from 
corrosion. The rosin seems to prevent the formation of 
an acid in the lard, and is thus enabled to protect the 
surface of metals from rust. When used in making soap 
the presence of the rosin keeps the material from getting 
rancid when kept damp. The production of lard in this 
country has reached about 250,000,000 lbs. annually. 
In 1875 there were exported from the United States to 
Europe, 166,869,393 lbs. of lard, valued at $92^900,522. 
The amount of lard oil exported for the same year was 
146,594 gallons valued at $147,384. (See Pork and 
Pork .Packing.) 

Laurel Leaves, the leaves of the tree Laurus nobilis. 
They are also known as Bay leaves and are used in cook- 
ery for the purposes of flavoring ; the better qualities of 
figs alwaj^s come packed with a few bay leaves placed at 
the top of each box to repel an insect which is veiy de- 
stiiictive to the fruit. The leaves are of a dark, shining 
green color, wav\' on the margin and pleasantly aromatic. 

Lead Pencils are made of a small stick of graphite 



LEMON. • 141 

enclosed in a wooden holder and used for writing upon 
paper. Graphite is rarely found sufficiently pure that it 
can be used for pencils in the condition in which it is 
taken from the mines. That taken from the famous 
Barrowdale mine in England and the AUbert mine in Si- 
beria is however sometimes used by simply being sawed 
into sheets and these again into rods which are enclosed 
in the wooden holders for use. A. W. Faber of Stein, 
German}^, has long held the monopoly of the Alibert mine 
the product of which has been brought by this house, be- 
long and expensive overland journeys, from the frontiers 
of China. 

Graphite is usually prepared for pencils by grinding to 
a fine powder, washing to free from impurities, after 
which the powder is compressed, sometimes with the ad- 
dition of cement, by hydraulic pressure into sohd cakes 
which are then sawed up in the same manner as native 
blocks. Recent I}' pencils have been made from the 
graphite produced in the gas retorts in making illuminat- 
ing gas. 

Lemon, {Citrus lemonum) , a tree closely related to the 
orange, citron, and lime ; some botanists have consid- 
ered all these as simpty varieties of one species, the cit- 
ron (C. medica). The lemon grows wild in the north of 
India, and has been long in cultivation among the Arabs 
who carried its culture into Europe and Africa ; it is now 
naturahzed in the West Indies and other parts of tropical 
America. Over thirt}^ varieties of lemons are in cultiva- 
tion, but in common they are generally classified accord- 
ing to the port from which they are shipped. The prin- 
cipal supplies of lemons received in this countr}^ are from 



142 LEMON. 

Sicily and are known as Messina lemons ; they are gen- 
erally of an oval shape, with a thick rind, smooth or 
rough and an abundant, sour juice. The Lustrata lemon 
i-s of large size, and with a thin, smooth, shining, and 
fragi'ant rind, under which it is difficult to discern any 
white. The pulp is yery delicate, and abounds in an 
agreeable acid juice which has a delightful aroma. 

It is grown in the neighborhood of Eome. The dtron 
lemon is a large, oblong, warty fruit, with a rough rind 
which is thick and eatable. It is the least delicate of all 
the lemons. Lemons of good quahty are also exported 
from Valentia. The lemon can be successfully grown in 
Florida and Cahfornia and is receiving considerable at- 
tention. 

The lemon is yalued for its aromatic rind and its acid 
juice, and is used for coohng di'inks and for flayoring in 
cooking. The oil of lemon is obtained by rasping the 
rinds and subjecting them to pressure ; after resting to 
deposit its coarse impurities it is filtered and put into 
copper cans of about six gallons capacity, in which shape 
it is exported ; the supply comes from the south of Eu- 
rope. The oil has the same composition as the oil of 
turpentine. The oil is largly used in cookery and con- 
fectionery ; the Extract of Lemon sold for domestic use 
is simply a dilute solution of the oil in alcohol, and may 
be made of any desired strength. "When mixed with alco- 
hol the oil retains the pmit}^ of its flavor and is preserved 
by the addition of alcohol, which is added as soon as re- 
ceived. Concentrated lemon juice is largely emploj'ed 
on shipboard for the prevention of scurvy on long V03'- 
ages ; drinking the pui'e juice is also said to be efficacious 



LENTIL — LETTUCE. 143 

in attacks of acute rheumatism. Lemon peel is the rind 
of the Lemon preserved in sugar, and is preserved in the 
same manner as the citron (which see) . 

Lentil, the seed of Ervum lens, a plant closely related 
to the pea, and has been used as an article for food from 
the earliest times. It is a native of Europe being exten- 
sively cultivated in the southern part, also in Asia and 
Egypt where the seeds form an important article of food. 
They are largely used by the Roman Catholics during the 
Lenten season. The plant is slender and branching, 
and grows only twelve or eighteen inches high. The 
small flowers resemble those of the pea, and are succeed- 
ed by pods which contain from one to four round, flat- 
tened, doubl}' concave seeds. Lentils are imported into 
this country to some extent, but their use is mainly con- 
fined to Europeans. The Germans use the lentils in the 
preparation of soup. Lentils contain a large amount of 
nutriment, and lentil meal, flavored with sugar and salt, 
is sold under high sounding names as a food for children. 

Lettuce, (Latuca Sativa) a well known garden vege- 
table used in the form of a salad. It has been cultiva- 
ted in England for over 200 years and has been used 
from the earliest times. Lettuce is an annual plant and is 
largely raised by our market gardeners and finds a ready 
sale. For early spring use, the plants are raised in 
frames, or may be wintered over as in some of the hard- 
ier varieties, and transplanted in the spring. The varie- 
ties of lettuce in cultivation are very numerous and are 
generally divided into the cabbage lettuce, in which the 
leaves form a compact cluster like a cabbage, and the 
cos lettuce which has firm and oblong leaves, forming a 



144 ' LIQUORICE. 

long, erect head, largest above and tapering below. 
Among the best varieties are the Silesian, Tennis ball, 
Curled India, Hanson and Drumhead. Lettuce as a 
food contains but little nutriment, but it is said to have 
a coohng and soothing effect on the system. During the 
period of flowering the plants abound in a milky juice 
which is collected and evaporated, and has the proper- 
ties of opium but in a much milder degree. 

Li(Xilorice, the extract obtained from the root of the 
plant, Glycyrrliiza glabra^ and G. echinata, natives of the 
south of Europe and now largel}^ cultivated all over the 
world. The plant belongs to the same family as the bean 
and the pea ; it grows to the height of four or five feet 
with few branches. The root which is perennial grows to 
the length of several feet and attains an inch in diameter. 
After a plantation is made it is allowed to remain three 
years before it is disturbed ; the roots are then dug and 
when cleansed and dry are ready for the market, and are 
known as liquorice root or stick liquorice. The extract 
of liquorice, called Spanish Juice in commerce and popu- 
larly known as ball hquorice, is prepared by boiling the 
root with water ; the decoction is then drawn off and 
evaporated to a proper consistence for forming it into 
C3'linders five or six inches long and one inch in diameter. 
These, packed in cases with bay leaves, are the extracts 
of liquorice of commerce. It is diy and brittle, of shin- 
ing fractui'e, and if pure and genuine wholly soluble in 
water. It is, however, rarely found in a pure state, for 
it is much adulterated. The Spanish liquorice is fre- 
quently nothing else but a mixture of the juice with the 
poorest quaUty of gum arable ; starch and flour some- 



LIQUID KENNET LOBSTERS. 145 

times constitute nearly one half the material. Liquorice 
may be easily refined by dissolving it in water, and re- 
moving the foreign material which is not soluble, and it 
may be reformed into cylinders of any convenient size. 
But in place of the substances removed, others are com- 
monly introduced, as sugar, flour, starch and gelatine. 
Much of our best liquorice is made in Catalonia and that 
made in Calabria is also of excellent quality. Liquorice 
is used in medicine, especially in diseases of the bronchial 
tubes, and also to cover the taste of disagreeable sub- 
stances. Liquorice is cultivated to some extent in this 
country, and enters into the manufacture of chewing to- 
bacco and into some branded hquors. 

Pontefract cakes ^ are round lozenges of refined liquor- 
ice made at the town of that name and impressed with a 
rude figure of the castle. 

Liquid Rennet, prepared from the dried rennet of the 
calf. It may be prepared by steeping the rennets in 
whe}^ or brine. The steeping occupies about a week, 
during which time the rennet is squeezed and rubbed to 
extract the active principle. The liquor is then strained 
ofl" and bottled for use. The English method is to steep 
the rennets in brine strong enough to bear an Qgg^ add- 
ing six rennets, one sliced lemon and an ounce of salt- 
petre to two gallons of brine. This brine liquor is gen- 
erally prepared some time before using as it is thought 
age improves its coagulating properties. 

Lobsters a well known shell fish of the genus Homa- 
rus. The common lobster of the United States (H. 
Americanus) , has the general appearance of the crawfish 
but is of larger size and lives in salt water. The shell, 



146 LOBSTERS. 

which is olive or blackish geeen, with dark spots and 
blotches, becomes red by boihng. This shell or exter- 
nal skeleton is changed periodically as the animal grows. 
It splits in two on the head and body, the new shell form- 
ing underneath ; the old shell is cast off, and the animal 
is now in a defenseless condition and hides in cre-\dces in 
the rocks until the new shell hardens. The eggs of the 
lobster are glued together by a viscid matter and attached 
in clusters to the hairy feet, where the}' remain until the 
embryos are fully developed. The j^oung differ but httle 
from the adults, and take shelter under the mother's tail. 
They are often seen surrounded hj the young six inches 
in length, which retire when warned of danger by the 
mother. The lobster comes to shore from deep water, 
from March to Maj', according to locaht}', and departs as 
irregularly in the autumn. The}' var}' in length, as caught 
for market, from one to two feet, and in weight from two 
pounds upward. They are common in the markets, es- 
peciall}' in sjDring and summer, and are considered a 
great dehcac}' though the meat is rather indigestible. 
There is onl}" one American species found from the 
coasts of Kew York northward. The best are taken on 
the rocky shores of New England, north of Cape Cod. 
Their food is wholly animal. The capture of the lobster 
employ's a large number of men both in this countr}^. and 
Europe. They are caught in baskets or nets, built on 
the principle of some rat traps, having funnel shaped 
ends with a hole in the centre which admits the animal, 
but prevents its egress by the extension of his claws. 
These traps being baited are sunk in deep water and" 
raised every few days and the contents removed. The 



^ LOGWOOD. 147 

number of lobsters annually consumed must be very 
large. It is estimated that Boston alone consumes 
1,100,000 annually. In Boston the male lobster is pre- 
ferred, while in New York the female has the preference. 
In winter the supply is principally derived from Maine, 
and they are there found in comparatively deep water. 
In Europe the great supply of lobsters is derived from 
Norway, and the time of catching them is regulated by 
law. In this country the yield is decreasing, and similar 
precautions should be observed. The hmit of salable size 
in Massachusetts, is ten and a half inches. During cold 
weather lobsters are shipped to the interior cities, and 
large quantities are canned, and sold in all parts of the 
countr}^ 

Logwood, a name applied to a dye wood obtained from 
the Hsematoxylon Campeachianum, a medium sized tree 
growing in Campeachy, Honduras, and other parts of 
tropical America. It has also become naturalized on 
the island of Jamaica. The tree grows to a height of 
from twenty to forty feet, and not over twenty inches in 
diameter. The trunk is crooked and covered with a 
rough bark, and the branches are provided with thorns. 
The wood is hard, compact and heavy, and susceptible 
of a fine pohsh. The outer or sap wood is yellow, but 
the interior or heart wood is of a deep red, and is the 
part exported for dyeing piurposes. The wood furnishes 
red, blue, and black dyes, mostly the latter. To prepare 
the imported wood for use it was formerly cut in small 
chips by means of machiner}^ ; but the practice is now to 
grind the wood to a powder, as in this form the infusion 
is more easily obtained than from the chips. Logwood 



148 LYE — MACARONI. 

was used in England as a dye, soon after the discovery 
of America, but met much opposition and in the reign' 
of Ehzabeth an act was passed prohibiting its use. In 
1661 the act was repealed and the use of logwood rapid- 
ly increased. It was obtained from the Spanish posses- 
sions in America, and by a special treaty the Enghsh 
were allowed to cut and ship wood in the Bay of Cam- 
peach}', from which it is sometimes known as Cam- 
peachy wood. 

Lye, (See Potash). 

Macaroni^ a name applied to a paste or dough worked 
and formed into tubes, ribbons or threads. It is an Ital- 
ian invention and though of very simple process has 
never been made elsewhere equal to it in quahty. This 
may be owing to the fact of the wheat having more glu- 
ten. The hardest and flintiest varieties of wheat are se- 
lected, worked, and thoroughly dried in the sun. It is 
then coarsely ground and mn through an immense re- 
volving sieve where the bran and flinty portion is sepa- 
rated from the starch. It is then successively passed 
through a series of sieves, six in number, each one finer 
than the preceding, the last being the finest quality 
made. The bran being all removed nothing remains but 
the clean flinty farina known as seminola. This is then 
mixed with warm water into a stiflT dough and this dough 
is thoroughly mixed by means of a lever fastened on one 
end and the pole is then raised and dej)ressed kneading 
and squeezing the dough till it is of the requked consist- 
ency : this process is continued for about an hour. An- 
other way of kneading the dough, is by pihng in masses 
and treading down with the naked feet after, which it is 



MACE MACHINE OIL. 149 

rolled with a heavy roller. The dough being prepared it 
is then put into presses with perforated bottoms, and 
pressure being applied it is forced through these holes 
and assumes their shape. Workmen cut them of the re- 
quired leng-th as they come out. To have the pieces 
hollow, wire is suspended from above into the perforations 
and the dough forced through. During this process it is 
partially baked by a fire under the vessel. It is neces- 
sary to have the larger pieces hollow as they would not 
dry if sohd. Vermicelli is made in the same way, only 
smaller and without perforations. Macaroni and verm- 
icelli enter largely into the preparation of soups. 

Mace, (see nutmeg.) 

Machine Oils, Lubricating Oils, may be of either 
animal, vegetable, or mineral origin. Sperm oil ob- 
tained from the head of the sperm whale where it is 
found in a semifluid condition mixed with spermaceti ; 
and whale oil obtained from the blubber of the right 
whale are the best of the animal oils for lubricating pur- 
poses, after them coming lard oil which is also excellent. 
Neats-foot oil is used to some extent as a machine oil. 
Vegetable oils found ready formed in the seeds, nuts, and 
other parts of various plants and obtained by pressure 
are of very great variet}' and are naturally divided into 
two classes : I, drj^ing oils, of which hnseed oil is an ex- 
ample, II, Fatty or non-drpng oils. The drying oils 
cannot be employed as lubricants, but anj^ of the second 
class may be used for this purpose. 

The best mineral lubricating oils are such as have been 
subjected to fractional distillation and the more volatile 
compounds expelled. Of these the best example is the 



150 MACKEREL. 

heavy lubricating oil obtained from the paraffine oil of 
the petroleum refineries. (See Kerosene). It is pro- 
duced in great quantities and is of excellent quality. 
Crude petroleum is considerably used and is tolerably 
good under light pressures. 

Most of the machine oils in market are mixtures of a 
variety of different oils, usually consisting of one which 
will give good body mixed with other less valuable ones. 
Mineral oil with lard oil is a common mixture. 

Mackerel, a well known food fish belonging to the 
genus Scomber. The most important species are the 
JS. vernalis of North American Atlantic waters, and 
>S'. vulgaris of European seas. The mackerel is said to 
perform migrations as extensive as the herring. The fish 
is taken on the shores of Great Britain from March to 
June, when they retire to deeper waters. The mackerel 
is a very voracious fish, feeding principally on the fry 
of other fish ; it is a rapid grower and attains an aver- 
age of fifteen inches and a weight of two pounds. It is 
considered best in May and June ; the flesh rapidly be- 
comes soft and must be eaten soon after taken from the 
water ; the flavor is retained in the salt fish. The fish 
are taken on the British coast by means of drift nets, 
which extend about two feet below the surface and are a 
mile in length ; they are set in the evening and the fish 
are caught during their journej^s at night by getting m the 
meshes of the net and retained by the pectoral fins. A 
single boat's crew will sometimes take £ 100 worth in a 
single night. Mackerel of difi'erent species are found in 
all the northern seas from Greenland to the Mediterra- 
nean, in the Black sea and that of Azov, in the waters of 



MACKEREL. 151 

Australia, East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope. 
The common mackerel of our coast is found in all the 
north Atlantic waters. Mackerel fishing is extensively 
carried on in Massachusetts and Maine, Gloucester and 
Yarmouth being the great center of fishery in this coun- 
try. The fishery is carried on in vessels ranging from 
45 to 90 tons, and carrying crews on an average of 15 
men. The seine which is now most used did not come 
into general use till 1873. It weighs about 2000 pounds 
and is about 1000 feet in length, 150 feet wide or deep 
in the middle, and narrower at each end. The seine is 
carried by the means of a large boat and two smaller to 
assist. When a shoal of mackerel is observed the boats 
tow the seines so as to head off the shoal, when one end 
is carried round so as to enclose the fish in the circle. 
The vessel is then drawn alongside and the fish taken 
from the seine by dip nets. Sometimes the fish escape 
by diving and going under the seine. About two hours 
time is required to make a cast of the net : sometimes 
250 or 300 barrels are taken at a single cast. In the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence the fish are taken by hook and line, 
their habits being unfavorable to seining. The process 
of dressing mackerel consists of four operations, splitting, 
gipping, ploughing and salting. The splitter splits the 
fish at the rate of 1500 an hour, the knife passing along 
the back from the head to the tail, leaving the back bone 
on the right side, and throws them into a tub. Two 
gippers stand at each tub, remove the gills and entrails 
and pass the fish into a barrel called the wash barrel, 
where they are allowed to soak. They are afterward 
taken out singly, laid on a board, skin down and a light 



152 MACKEREL. 

sti'oke of the plough, which consists of a piece of a knife 
blade or similar instrument, is given on each side of the 
fish from the head two thirds down to the tail. This op- 
eration is sometimes postponed tiU they are landed. 
Salting is performed b}^ lading the fish singly in a barrel 
and sprinkhng a small handful of salt on each. They are 
then allowed to remain over night, when some of the 
pickle is drained ofi* and the barrels are filled, headed up, 
and stowed below. A httle less than a bushel of salt is 
used for a barrel, and it takes five wash baiTels to make 
four barrels of salted fish. After being landed the fish 
are assorted, inspected, and branded by a state oflScer, 
appointed for the pmpose, and repacked for market. 
The size and quality are denoted by numbers, 1, 2,*3, 4. 
No. 1 mackerel should not be less than 13 inches in 
length from the extremity of the head to the tail, fat, 
free from rust, taint or damage : No. 2 must not be less 
than 11 inches in length, fat, free from rust etc: No. 3 
should not be less than 10 inches in length ; No. 3 large, 
must be 13 inches in length, and are those left after the 
selection of No. 1 : No. 4 mackerel comprise all others, 
and must be free from taint or damage. Mess mackerel 
are the finest fish with the head and tail removed. Mack- 
erel are packed in barrels, half barrels, quarter barrels, 
and kits, and should contain when of full weight, 200, 
100, 50, 20 and 15 pounds but the kits are often short 
weight. Mackerel are also preserved by canning. For 
the custom year ending June 30, 1875, there were received 
in the United States 527,633 cwt. of cm-ed mackerel val- 
ued at $ 2,655,623. Spain, Spanish America, and the 



MADDER. 153 

south and west of the United States are the great mark- 
ets for salt mackerel. 

Madder, {Mubia tinctorium.) The roots of this plant 
are used as a red dye ; it is a native of southern Europe 
and is largely cultivated in France, Asia Minor, and 
Holland. Its cultivation in the United States has not 
been ver}^ successful. The roots are perennial and throw 
up annually slender, four sided, pointed stems with the 
leaves arranged in whorls. The stems are furnished 
with prickles so as to enable it to climb on other plants. 
The roots proceeding from a central head are long suc- 
culent fibres, and those used for dyeing are from the size 
of a goose quih to that of the little finger. They are dug 
the third summer after sowing, deprived of the dark 
bark which covers them, and dried by artificial heat, and 
thrashed by a flail to remove the cuticle. The}" are then 
carefully sieved and the dirt removed. Being again 
cMed in a stove till quite crisp, they are cut up by a ma- 
chine furnished with knives, and then ground between 
mill stones and the powder bolted. In commerce the 
powdered roots are called madder, the whole roots being 
known as lizaria. The best qualities are from Asia Mi- 
nor and C3^prus. The European madders are known as 
Dutch, Alsatian, and Avignon. The quality is very var- 
iable, that prepared without removing the epidermis being 
darker and is known as stripped. Madder as a dye is 
largely used in the printing of calico, on account of the 
great variety of tints it gives with different mordants. 
Madder is often adulterated with saw dust of pine barks, 
mahogany, logwood etc., which seriouslj^ impair its qual- 
ity as a dye, and they can only be detected by actual tri- 



154 MALT MAPLE SUGAR. 

al in dyeing the goods. Madder has the pecnb'ar propei-ty 
when fed to animals of tinging the milk, urine and bones 
red. 

Malt, "barley or other gi-ain allowed to partly germi- 
nate, and then Idln dried, thns preventing further germ- 
ination and preserving the saccharine principle developed 
during the process. It is used in breT\ing. 

Mandioca, Cassava, Manioc names applied to the Man- 
iJiot Utilissima and Manhiot sept half shi'uhby, euphorbi- 
aceous plants of South America. The plant reaches a 
height of six or eight feet and has a white, fleshy, tuberous 
root of immense size, sometimes weighing thirty pounds. 
A poisonous principle is found in all parts of the plant, in 
the form of a milky, acrid juice, and the root, if eaten in 
a fresh state, is highl}^ poisonous. The plant is of rapid 
growth and the roots come to perfection in about six 
months. When the roots are taken up they are washed 
and scraped, and are then grated or ground into a pulp, 
and the pulp submitted to pressure, by which the ]X>ison- 
ous juice is expressed and preserv^ed. The meal or pulp 
that remains in the press is then dried and made into 
meal and is used in making a coarse kind of bread, called 
cassava bread ; the poisonous principle is so volatile that 
it escapes v.ith the heat. The expressed juice being al- 
lowed to stand, a white, starchy deposit is found which 
forms the tapioca of commerce (see tapioca) . 

Manna, a patent preparation used for food, similar to 
semohna (which see) . 

Maple Sugar, a sugar made in large quantities in the 
Northern United States from the sap of the sugar maple 
{Acer saccharinum.) This sap rises in the tree as the 



MAPLE SUGAR. 155 

frost is leaving the ground in early spring and an}' wound 
made in the tree at such time bleeds freely. As soon 
according!}' as thawing weather begins and while the 
nights are still cold and freezing, the trees are " tapped" 
by boring one or more holes about thi'ee fourths of an inch 
in diameter, usually to a depth of about two inches, into 
the side of each tree, a height of three or four feet from 
the ground. Hollow " spikes" or spouts are then driven 
into these holes, or trough like spikes are set into the 
bark just below the holes, and buckets are placed below 
to catch the sap as it flows. In good weather trees will 
yield from three to five gallons of sap each during the 
day ; five to seven gallons of sap being required to pro- 
duce a pound of sugar. Once or twice a day the sap is 
collected from the buckets and drawn to the sugar camp 
where it is evaporated in shallow pans or sometimes in 
large kettles until it reaches the cojisistency of thin s^Tup. 
It is then removed from the pans, strained through thick 
flannel cloth to remove gummy matter and impurities and 
set aside in deep vessels and allowed to stand tVV'enty- 
four hours to deposit suspended impurities. The clear 
S3'rup is then decanted off, placed in smaller pans or ket- 
tles, and egg, milk or other substance added to clarify it, 
and as it is brought to the boiling point is carefully'" 
skimmed. It is then boiled a short time longer until 
having attained the proper consistenc}' it is removed and 
canned or put up in cakes and sold as maple sj^rup, or if 
sugar is to be made it is boiled until it becomes some- 
what viscid whilst hot, when it is removed from the fire 
and allowed to cool slowly that a good ' ' grain" may be 
developed, after which it is placed in moulds and allowed 



156 MAHMALADE MATCH. 

to solidfy , Maple sji'up and sugar are mucli prized upon 
account of theii' peculiar pleasant flavor, and as this 
would be destroyed by the process the sugar is never 
refined. 

The in'odaclion of maple sugar in the United States, 
in 1870, according to the census statistics, amounted to 
28,443,645 pounds, of which Vermont produced nearly 
9,000,000 pounds, and together with six other states, 
namely. New York, Ohio, New Hampshire, Michigan, 
Pennsylvania and Indiana, produced upward of 25,000, 
000 pounds. The j^ield of Maple syrup for the same 
year was 921,057 pounds, of which Ohio and Indiana 
produced nearly 600,000 pounds. 

Marmalade, a conserve made of the harder fruits, 
such as apple, pear, quince and orange, and with a large 
proportion of sugar. It is evaporated enough to assume 
form in a mould. A conserve made of softer fruits such 
as berries, etc., of a soft or pasty consistence is known 
as Jam. 

Martynias, a name given to the fruit of Martynia pro^ 
boscoides, a plant native to the valley of the Mississip- 
pie and the plains of Mexico. The whole plant has a 
clammy appearance, viscid pubescent and fetid odor. 
The long beaked fruit when in a young state is used for 
making pickles. 

Match, a name now applied to a small stick of wood 
dipped in some preparation of sulphur, phosporus etc., 
and producing fire hj friction. ' It is also known as the 
" lucifer match," or " lucifer". The earliest form of the 
match was that of a stick of wood dipped in sulphur ; 
this was ignited b}^ applj'ing it to the flame produced by 



MATCH. 157 

rubbing pbospborus between folds of brown paper. This 
was in 1650 a few years after the discovery of phosphorus. 
Another form in common use was known as chemical 
matches, which were ignited b}- dipping the end which was 
coated with a composition of chlorate of potash, sulphur, 
rosin and gum and sugar, into a vial containing sulphuric 
acid when it was ignited by chemical action. But it was 
not till 1829 that the lucifer match was invented, and 
was introduced to the public by Faradaj^ Their use 
rapidl}" spread, until the manufacture became an impor- 
tant article of industry in Europe and the United States. 
The wood employed in the manufacture of matches, is 
the best, clear, white pine, and the quantity consumed is 
enormous. The wood is first sawed into blocks of equal 
size and of two matches in length. Then by machinery 
the}^ are divided into splints of the proper size. These 
are dipped into melted sulphur and afterward into the 
phosporus composition, consisting of phosporus, 4 parts, 
nitre 10, fine glue 6, red ochre 5, smalt, two parts. In 
this country the wood is divided into splints by being 
forced through tubes, with numerous perforations made 
as near together as possible, leaving just enough of the 
match to give the requisite strength for cutting. These 
perforations may be either round or square. Matches 
are often made without dipping into sulphur, paraffine oil 
being used as a substitute. Safety matches are those in 
which the phosphorus is on sand paper, and the other ma- 
terial on the end of the match. Neither can be ignited 
without the use of the other. The making of matches is 
now almost entirely conducted bj^ machinery. They are 
sawed, cut into proper sizes, carried on a double chain to 



158 MELON. 

the sulphur vat, then to the phosphorus vat, back again 
to near the cutting machine, when thej^ are taken off and 
carried to the packing room. Matches are sold b}' the 
gross, and packed in boxes of various sizes. The parlor 
match is manufactured without sulphur, and phosphorus 
is replaced by the chlorate of potash and antimony ; the 
wood is prepared with paraffine or stearine. No correct 
statistics of match making are given, but it is estimated 
that in Europe and North America, each individual uses 
six matches a day. Thus some idea of the immense 
number consumed may be formed. The workmen em- 
ployed in match factories are hable to a terrible disease 
of the teeth and jaw, and onl}^ the utmost cleanhness can 
prevent it. ^Wisconsin and Michigan furnish a large 
share of the matches consumed in this country. Matches 
are exported to the East and West Indies, Austraha, 
China, Mexico, South America etc. 

Melon, the large edible fruit of a running vine belong- 
ing to the gourd family. The watermelon (Citrullus vul- 
garis) is found wild in Africa and is also a native of Asia. 
It is extensivel}^ cultivated in all warm countries and re- 
quires a rich soil to reach perfection. Many varieties 
are cultivated, and the fruit is of various sizes and colors ; 
the seed may be white, brown or black ; while the edible 
part ma}^ be j^ellow or red. The first variety seen in 
the northern markets is the Mountain sprout or Carohna, 
which is brought in large quantities from the southern 
states each season. It is of the largest size, longish 
oval ; skin dark green, marbled with hghter shades ; 
red fleshed and of excellent quahty. The Black Spanish 
is an excellent variety ; fruit medium, almost round ; flesh 



MILK. 159 

red, sweet and delicious. The Ice Cream, with white 
flesh, and the Orange are varieties also extensively cul- 
tivated. The Muskmelon is cucumus melo and is said to 
be a native of Persia. The frait, which is very variable 
in size, has a thick and fleshy pericarp ribbed externally, 
while the seed and stringy placenta occupy the centre and 
are separated when the fruit is eaten. This melon reach- 
es its greatest perfection in the South but is also success- 
fully cultivated in the North. In England they are raised 
with certainty only under glass. The diflerent varieties 
mix very readily and great care is required to keep them 
pure. Those most fixed in the character and the sort in 
general use, are the Green Citron, a variety with me- 
dium fruit deeply netted, green flesh, delicious flavor, and 
in shape almost round. The Nutmeg ; fruit nutmeg 
shape, skin deep green, thickly netted ; flesh greenish 
yellow, sugary and of excellent flavor. Other varieties 
are White Japan, Skillman's Netted, Persian Ispahan and 
Christiana. Muskmelons for shipping are commonly 
packed in crates containing from one to two dozen. 

The Citron Watermelon, is small, nearly round, with a 
handsome variegated shell, with a white, sohd, tough and 
seedy flesh which is unpalatable, but is used for making 
sweetmeats. The flesh is cut into convenient pieces or 
fancy shapes, and cooked in syrups, becoming semitrans- 
parent, and it has a distinct and pecuhar flavor. The 
green, thick shell of the watermelon may be preserved in 
a similar manner. 

Milk, condensed, a name applied to a preparation of 
preserved milk. The process of condensing milli is sub- 
stantially as follows ; as soon as the milli is received at 



160 linLK. 

the factory it is passed through the strainer into the re- 
ceiving vat ; from here it is conducted through another 
strainer into the heating cans, each containing about 
twentj^ gallons. These cans are then set in hot water 
and the milk is held in them till it reaches the tempera- 
ture of 150'' to 175° F. It is then passed through anoth- 
er strainer into a large vat at the bottom of which is a 
coil of copper pipe through which steam is conducted and 
here the steam is then heated up to the boihng point. 
The best quality of granulated sugar is then added, in 
the proportion of one and a quarter pounds to a gallon 
of milk, when it is drawn into the vacuum pan, having a 
capacity of condensing 3000 quarts or more at a time. 

Here it remains subjected to steam for about three 
hours during which time 75 per cent, of the bulk of the 
water is removed, when it is drawn off into cans contain- 
ing about forty quarts each, which are placed in cold wa- 
ter and allowed to cool to a little below 70° F. It is 
then poured into large drawing cans furnished with fau- 
cets from which it is drawn into the small cans holding 
about a pound each, which are taken to the tables and 
immediately soldered up to exclude the air. Mill?: pre- 
pared in this manner can be kept any length of time, and 
is used for all the purposes of ordinarj- milk. It is gen- 
erally of excellent qualit}^ as onl}^ the best and sweetest 
milk is used, for if tainted or adulterated it would not 
keep. 

Preserved milk thus prepared contains about one tliird 
of its weight of sugar. Numerous factories are employed 
in its preparation and it is destined to become an impor- 
tant article of food. 



MOLASSES MUSHROOM. 161 

Molasses, the thick, ^dscid, dark colored syrup which 
drains from sugar in the process of manufactming and 
when coohng. It consists essentially of water, coloring 
matter, uncrystallizable sugar and various Impurities. 
West India and New Orleans molasses are the products 
that come from the sugar plantations, while " sugar 
house" molasses is the syrup which remains in the con- 
yersion of brown into refined sugar, and contains too lit- 
tle cane sugar for farther treatment. Molasses is also 
the term ajjplied to the evaporated juice of the sugar 
maple and the sorghum plant (see sugar) . Molasses is 
used as a substitute for sugar and is also imported for 
the manufacture of rum. The total amount of molasses 
produced in the United States for 1870, according to the 
census, was over 23,000,000 gallons, of which over 16, 
000,000 was sorghum, 6,000,000 cane, and nearly 
1,000,000 maple. During the year ending June 30, 
1875, there were imported into the United States 49,112, 
225 gallons of molasses, valued at $ 11,635,224 of which 
the larger proportion came from Cuba. 

MushroOM, a species of edible fungus Agaricus cam- 
pestris. This is the species cultivated, though other 
species commonly called toadstools are also edible. 
From the difficulty of distinguishing the poisonous from 
the edible species, great care should be taken in the gath- 
ering. The common and successful method of raising 
mushrooms is to mix fresh horse dung with bran in such 
proportions as to prevent too violent heating, when it is 
placed into long narrow beds of a foot or eighteen inches 
in height and the spawn or ni3^celium is placed in the 
center and covered slightly with loam. The^- should bo 



162 MUSTARD. 

covered to protect them from the sun and to retain the 
moisture. Mushrooms find a ready sale and are consid- 
ered as excellent food. 

Mustard. Two kinds of mustard are found in com- 
merce, black and white, so named from the color of the 
seed. Sinapis nigra is the black mustard, and S. alba 
the white mustard, both natives of Europe but now cul- 
tivated and naturalized in this country. The seeds of 
the black mustard are small, globular, of a deep brown 
VAthout and yellow within. The white is somewhat 
larger, and light externally. It is from the gTound seed 
of these two mustards that jlour of mustard so much 
used as a condiment is obtained. The original Durham 
mustard was made from S. arvensis the common wild 
charlock of England, which grew very plentifully near the 
city of Dm^ham and hence its name. Mustard seed is 
ground by being crushed between rollers, powdered and 
sifted. As commonly prepared mustard is largely adul- 
terated. Rape seed, turnip seed too old to vegetate, and 
wUd radish are often ground with it. After being ground 
it is adulterated with wheat floiu* and turmeric ; as mus- 
tard contains no starch grains, the presence of wheat 
flour may easity be found by the use of the microscope. 
Turmeric maj?- be known by its being colored brown b}^ a 
weak solution of ammonia. Mustard is largely used as 
a condiment and also in medicine ; swallowed in any 
quantity with water it acts as a prompt emetic and is 
useful in cases of poisoning ; mixed with water it is ap- 
plied to the skin in the form of a plaster. 

From the seed an. oil is extracted by expression and is 
called oil of mustard; which is a fixed oil with httle 



NUTMEG. 1G3 

smell and not unpleasant taste. After the fixed oil is 
extracted from the seed, there is obtained from the res- 
idue a volatile oil which is of an exceedingly pungent 
odor and having sulphur among its constituents ; sul- 
phur is also present in flour of mustard and is the ele- 
ment that causes silver to turn black, when the mustard 
is mixed with water or vinegar. 

Nutmeg, the kernel of the seed of Myrista, a small tree, 
a native of the East Indian Islands, but also cultivated 
in India and Central America. The tree attains the 
height of thirty feet with a straight stem and a branching 
head. The flowers are male and female situated on dif- 
ferent trees, small and of a yellow color. The fruit is 
round or oval, about the size of a small peach, with a 
smooth surface, green at first, but becoming yellow when 
ripe. The external covering, which may be called a 
husk, is thick and fleshy ; becoming dry at maturity this 
husk splits open in two halves, and discloses the nut 
covered with its aril, or mace, which is of a beautiful 
blood red color. Beneath the mace is a brown, shining 
shell containing the kernel or nutmeg. There are two 
varieties of the nutmeg, the royal nutmeg which produc- 
es the long nuts and has the aril or mace much larger 
than the nut ; and the queen nutmeg which jdelds the 
more valuable round nuts and has its mace extending only 
half waj^ down the nut. A plantation of nutmeg trees 
is raised from seed and it is not till the eighth or ninth 
year that the tree produces flowers. The sexes being on 
diflerent trees, after the plants are two years old they are 
all headed down, and grafted with scions taken from the 
female tree, reserving only male stock for fecundation. 



1 64 NUTMEG. 

The natives of the East gather the fruit by hand, take off 
and reject the outer shell or husk ; the mace is then care- 
fully taken off and exposed to the sun's rays for one day, 
when the beautiful red color changes to a hght brown ; it 
is then removed from the direct rays of the sun and al- 
lowed to remain for eight days more, when it is moisten- 
ed with sea water to prevent it from drjdng too much, 
or losing its oil. It is then put in bags and firmly 
pressed. The nuts which are still covered with their 
wood shell are exposed to the sun for three days, and 
afterward dried before a fire till they rattle when shaken ; 
they are then beaten with small sticks in order to re- 
move their shell which files off in pieces ; the nuts are 
then distributed in parcels ; the fruit which contain the 
largest and paost beautiful are intended for exportation ; 
the second are those reserved for the use of the inhabi- 
tants ; and the third contains the smallest which are dam- 
aged or unripe ; these latter are burnt. Oil is obtained 
fi'om the nutmeg by pressure, which has the consistence 
of tallow and preserves the fiavor of the nutmegs. 
The nutmegs after having been thus selected, are pickled 
in lime water made from calcined shell fish and mixed 
with water until of a semifluid consistency. Into this 
mixture they plunge the nutmegs contained in small 
baskets, two or three times, till the}' are completely cov- 
ered over with the hquor. They are then laid in heaps 
and allowed to sweat, after which the}^ are packed in bar- 
rels or bales for exportation. The best nutmegs are 
those from Penang, which are about an inch in length, 
shaped hlie a damson plum, pale brown in color, fm-rowed 
on the exterior and gray inside, vvith veins of red run- 



NASTURTIUM OAT MEAL. 165 

ning througli them. Penang mace is also highly vatnecl^ 
and is usually of a pale ciuuamoii color when dry. 

Various mgenious methods have been resorted to for 
concealing defective nutmegs, and it is said they are per- 
forated and boiled in order to extract the essential oil, 
and the orifice carefully closed to avoid detection ; but 
the}^ may easily be told by their light weight. Mace and 
nutmegs are used as condiments, and to some extent in 
medicinal preparations. For the year ending June 30, 
1875, there were consumed in the United States, nutmegs 
to the value of I 650,675. 

Nasturtium, {Tropcelum Majus,) an ornamental plant 
native of South America ; root annual ; stem three to 
eight feet long, fleshy, smooth. The fruit fleshy, becom- 
ing coriaceous. The plant is cultivated for its young 
fruit, which is prepared as a condiment and affords a 
substitute for capers. 

Oat Meal, the ground grain of the common oats, Av- 
ena sativa. The grain of oats was formerly largely con- 
sumed in the north of England, Wales and Scotland, 
but is now giving way largely to wheat. The oat is pe- 
culiarly adapted for human food and is said to conduce to 
healthy and vigorous constitution. The husk of the oat 
is peculiarly hard and is indigestible and must be broken 
or the gastric juice cannot act upon the kernel. It is al- 
so furnished with long, sharp spilie, which are apt to accu- 
mulate and irritate the intestines. Hence it is desirable 
that the husk should be removed entire, when it is used 
as an article of food for man. Only the best (quality of 
oats should be used to form meal. The meal is generally 
ground in two forms in somewhat large grains as in 



166 OLIYE. 

Scotcli oat meal and in fine powder. There is also a meal 
intermediate between these and it is known as medium. 
Oat meal is generally used as a porridge although it may 
be made into cakes. It requires much boiling to break 
its starch cells, the coarse kinds requiring the most 
boiling. Oat meal, from being the main food of the 
lower classes in England and Scotland, has now become 
a luxury on account of its increase of price. Although 
a very nutritious food, its use in the United States is 
comparatively limited, but is undoubtedly destined to 
increase. Groats are the whole kernel of the oat when 
freed from its husk ; it is boiled in milk or water for the 
preparation of gruel, and requires a long time to thor- 
oughly cook it. 

Olive, ( Olea Europa) , is supposed to have come origi- 
nally from Asia. It grows well in Syria, and is now 
naturalized in the south of France, Italy and Spain. 
The culture of the olive is one of the principle commer- 
cial resources of the countries of southern Europe and 
the Northern States of Africa. The olive has been culti- 
vated from the earliest times, and is of common mention 
m the Scriptures. The ohve tree is from fifteen to twen- 
ty feet or more in height, having the growth of a bushy 
tree, and is very long hved, some specimens being con- 
sidered a thousand years old. The flowers are small 
and white, and the fruit is an oval drupe or plum, of a 
greenish, whitish or violet color, with a stone in the cen- 
ter, the flesh on the exterior containing the oil. There 
are many varieties of the ohve in cultivation ; the long 
leaved is that which is generally grown in the south of 
France and Italy, and the broad leaved is that which is 



OLIVE. 167 

mostly grown in Spain. The long leaved variety pro- 
duces the finest oil, that of the latter being of a strong, 
rank flavor. The oil is obtained by pressure ; when the 
fruit begins to ripen, it becomes of a wine color and is 
fit for malring the oil. The fruit is gathered, carried to 
a mill and bruised, the stones being set at such a distance 
that they do not crush the stone of the olive. The flesh 
covering the nut and containing the oil in its cells being 
thus prepared, is put into bags made of rushes, and mod- 
erately pressed ; and thus is obtained in considerable 
quantity a greenish, semi-transparent oil of superior ex- 
cellence which is known as Virgin" s oil. 

The pulp after the first pressure is moistened with 
water, and again pressed ; this oil though inferior to 
the first, is still used for table oil. The pulp is again 
broken in pieces, soaked in water, left to ferment in 
large cisterns and again pressed. The oil thus obtained 
is of inferior quality, and is used in making soap and for 
manufacturing purposes. Olive oil may be said to form 
the butter and cream of Spain and Italy. It is ver}^ nu- 
tritious and is extensively used as an article of food. 
The fruit is prepared as a pickle, by repeatedly steeping 
them in water to which quick lime has been added, or 
any alkaline substance, to shorten the operation. They 
are afterward soaked in pure water, and then taken out 
and boiled in salt and water, with or without an aromatic. 
They are preserved by being kept in strong brine, and 
excluded from the air ; they are also preserved in oil. 
For the year ending June 30, 1875, there were imported 
into the United States, 173,688 gallons of olive oil, valued 
at $ 127,240, 



168 ONION. 

Salad Oil or Sweet oil is the name applied to olive oil 
after being purified by settling, filtering, washing, and 
by various chemical means. Of this salad oil, there were 
imported for the same year, 176,119 gallons valued at 
$ 335,918. Much of the table oil imported from France 
is adulterated with lard oil obtained from the United 
States, and reshipped as oil of Lucca or Provence. It 
is also largely adulterated by the oil from the common 
peanut, which is grown in Northern Africa for that par- 
ticular purpose. 

Onion, {Allium Cepa.) A well known garden vege- 
table belonging to the Lily family. The onion is culti- 
vated for its bulb like root which is simply the bases of 
the leaves, thickened and overlapping each other. The 
onion is a native of Asia and Egyji; where it has been 
cultivated from time immemorial, and fr'om there distiib- 
uted all over the world. The bulb of the onion is highly 
nutritious and is eaten raw or cooked in various ways. 
As grown by market gardeners they are grown from 
sets and nearly aU sold in bunches in the green or un- 
ripened state. Grown from seed they are mostly raised 
on farms, and are sold in the dry or ripened state, and 
form an important article of commerce. The best varie- 
ties in common use are Red Wethersfield, Yellow Dan- 
vers and White or Silver skinned onion. 

Potato onions or Multiphers as they are sometimes 
called, are the mildest of all onions, but are httle gTown 
for market. They are raised from the bulbs, planted 
early in spring, and the increase is formed b}" the bulb 
as it grows sphtting up and dividing into six or eight 
bulbs, these forming the crop when at maturity. Toj) or 



ORANGE. 169 

Tree onions are the bulbs formed at the top of the plant 
in place of the flowers. They resemble a cluster of ha- 
zel-nuts, and are planted to produce early crops of green 
onions for the market. The field onions are dug in Au- 
gust, and allowed to remain on the ground for two or 
three weeks till they are thoroughly dried, and then 
packed away in a cool, dry place. Our early markets 
are supplied with ripe onions from the Bermuda Islands, 
and they are of excellent quality. 

Ol'ange, the fruit of several varieties of the genus Ci- 
trus^ but mostly referred to Citrus Aurantmm. It is a 
small, evergreen tree, with beautiful leaves and most 
fragrant flowers. It is supposed the orange originally 
came from the East Indies or China ; it is now cultivated 
in every region of the earth where the temperature is 
sufficiently warm to permit it to thrive. The oranges of 
commerce are mostly derived from Spain, Sicily, Malta, 
Portugal and Cuba. Florida also exports fine fruit and 
its cultivation is profitably conducted in CaUfornia. The 
young plants are raised from seed in nurseries and after 
cultivation for about six or eight years, they are grafted 
with a scion of a cultivated tree, and in two years more 
are transplanted to the orchards. They begin to bear 
fruit at the age of thirteen or fourteen years, and if well 
cultivated will produce 28 or 30 oranges for the first 
crop. In about six years more it reaches maturity, and 
will bear from 1000 to 10,000 oranges and even as high 
as 20,000. The orange tree in Italy yields but one crop 
a year. It flowers in May and is not fit for gathering 
until in December. In some places it is gathered in 
September, and allowed to ripen afterwards. This is 



170 ORANGE. 

the method generally pursued when shipped to America. 
The fruit is gathered in September while yet green, 
wrapped separately in hght paper, and carefully packed 
in wooden boxes or cases, and shipped on a voyage last- 
ing some weeks, and when opened are found fresh, sweet, 
and quite ripe. The blood orange is largely cultivated 
in Sorrento, but is not considered a distinct species. Our 
supply comes largely from Spain, Portugal, Italy, the 
Islands of the Mediterranean and Cuba. Among the va- 
rieties of oranges imported is the Portugal or Lisbon. 
This is the most common of all, and is generally of a 
round shape sometimes flattened, and sometimes a httle 
elongated or oblong. The rind is thick and of a reddish 
yellow or deep orange color. The China orange is the 
most delicious of all oranges, and has a smooth, shining 
rind, so thin it can scarcely be separated from the pulp. 
The St. Michael's is probabl}' a variety of this, is small 
and flattened at the end, with a very smooth rind, a light 
colored pulp, and sugary flavor. When the tree of this 
orange is young and vigorous, the skin of the fruit is 
thick and contains many seeds. But when the tree be- 
comes old, the rind of the fruit is thin and the seeds are 
absent. The oranges from Valentia are also of excel- 
lent quality. Oranges shipped from Messina and known 
as Messina oranges are very common in our markets. 
From the flowers of the orange is distilled the well known 
perfume. Orange Flower Water. They also fm^nish by 
distillation, the oil of neroli much used in making eau 
de cologne. The rind of the orange is also candied and 
preserved in the same manner as the Citron, and is known 
as Orange Feel. It is used by confectioners and in do- 



OYSTERS. 171 

mestic economy. The yonng, unripe fruit of tTie orange 
is preserved whole in sugar, crystallized and eaten as 
a sweetmeat. 

Oysters, the common name applied to numerous spe- 
cies of bivalves, mollusks belonging to the genus Ostrea, 
of the family Ostreidae. The genus is very widely dis- 
tributed, members of it being found in nearly all seas 
except in polar latitudes. The best known species are 
two, the Ostrea edulis of Europe, and Ostrea Virgi7iia?ia 
of the Eastern United States. The American species fe 
larger and better flavored than the European. It is 
found all along the eastern coast of the United States, 
but is especially abundant in Chesapeake Bay. It is 
found naturally in beds, the shells being attached to each 
other, and to any rough objects upon the bottom, in 
moderately deep water ; water usuall}^ from seven to thirty 
feet, but varying with climate and other conditions. They 
are more frequently found in semi-fresh waters, at the 
mouths of rivers and in bays, and necessarily in some- 
what sheltered positions, for where the water at the bot- 
tom is agitated, they become covered with sand and mud 
and are thus killed. There are very many diflTerent va- 
rieties, their character and especially quahty seeming to 
depend very much upon the locality and conditions under 
which they are grown. Considerable quantities of fresh 
water mixed with the water of the ocean, is especially 
necessary to produce oj^sters of large size and good qual- 
ity. Chesapeake Bay furnishes the required conditions 
in a high degree, and the oysters grown there are uni- 
versally regarded as superior. 

In recent years the cultivation of the oyster has be- 



172 OYSTERS. 

come of very considerable importance. In France and 
England the natural beds have become almost entirely 
exhausted, which has led the French government to 
make extended investigations into the feasibility of arti- 
ficial cultiu-e, and to adopt measures to encourage the 
production of this valuable and easily grown food supply. 
Through government encouragement and aid, large quan- 
tities of American oysters have been obtained and plant- 
ed, and the industry has grown to large proportions. 
The French system of oyster farming differs from that 
of England and America, in one important particular, 
namely: in breeding from their artificial beds, thus 
growing their own young instead of obtaining plants 
from natural beds. 

Artificial beds for the growth and fattening of oysters 
are abundant in this countrj^, but artificial breeding is 
scarcely at all practiced. Plants are gathered from August 
to October generally along the coast of the Carolinas, 
where are prolific natural beds, in which the oysters a7re too 
salt and small for use, being but from one to two inches 
in length when taken. These are taken immediately to 
the planting grounds, where they are shoveled overboard 
in sufficient quantitj^ to cover the bottom, where they are 
allowed to remain for from six months to a year to grow 
and fatten. At the end of this time, they will have be- 
come four or five inches in length and fit for market. 
The best and most largely used planting grounds are in 
Chesapeake Bay, sheltered localities where the water is 
from two to seven feet deep being preferred. The im- 
plements used in oyster fishing are the dredge, the tongs 
and the fork. The dredge is used upon natural beds in 



OYSTER PLANT — PAPER. 173 

deep water. It consists of an iron net set in an iron 
frame, furnished, with teeth so arranged as to tear the 
03^sters from their beds, and gather them into the net as 
it is dragged over the bottom bj a small yessel, to which 
it is attached by a rope. The dredge weighs about 150 
pounds, and will hold about three bushels. When filled 
it is drawn on board its vessel by means of a windlass. 
The tongs consist of two u"on rakes jointed together near 
their heads, and furnished with long, wooden handles. 
They are used where the water is from two to eight feet 
deep. The fisher uses them from a small boat, over the 
side of which he leans and gathers the oysters from the 
bottom. The fork is but little used, and only where the 
water is shallow and the oysters entangled in sea moss. 

The oysters after being taken are for the most part 
earried to large oyster houses, where several hundred 
hands are frequently employed in opening and packing 
them for the market. They are put up either in cans or 
m bulk, and are of several grades the best being known 
as selects ; following which come standards and various 
lower grades. 

The oj^ster beds of the Chesapeake Bay cover an area 
of over three thousand square miles, and the annual 
jdeld of oysters from them is estunated at upwards of 
thh'ty millions of bushels. Large quantities of oysters 
are hermetically sealed in cans and are known as cove 
oysters. 

Oyster Plant, (see Salsify.) 

Paper. The earhest form of paper of which we have 
any mention was the papyrus of the ancient Egyptinns, 
used by them 2500 years B. C, and mauulactiired from 



174 PAPER. 

the papyrus-plant. About 450 B.C. parchment was in- 
troduced into use for the pm-pose of maldng books. The 
Chinese have also long made paper from siLk and cotton. 
The Moors introduced the manufactm^e of paper into 
Spain, from whence it gradually spread over Europe. 
Paper making at the present time is an extensive industry, 
in the United States, about $ 40.000,000 being invested, 
in the manufacture. Paper is made from cotton and hn- 
en rags, various kinds of straw, wood, some species of 
grass, old books, paper and all sorts of waste material 
containing vegetable fibre. Wood used in making paper 
is reduced by mechanical or chemical means to the con- 
dition of pulp and is generally mixed with rags in the 
manufacture. In making paper from rags, the rags are 
first carefully sorted and aU foreign material removed ; 
cut fine by the workmen or by a cutting machine, thor- 
oughly dusted over wire screens, and then subjected to 
boiUng in large vats under a steam pressui^e of twenty to 
sixty pounds per square inch. They are usually boiled 
in a solution of lime, and for some grades soda-ash is add- 
ed, which dissolves all the grease and loosens the dii't. 
From the boiler the rags are placed in the washing en- 
gine with plenty of water, where they are thoroughly 
washed by means of machinerj'. After being thoroughly 
washed the mass is bleached by the addition of chloride 
of hme and a smaU quantity of sulphuric acid. From the 
bleaching vats the material is taken to the beating engine, 
where the chloride hquor is washed out, and the pulp 
thoroughl}^ beaten. This half stuff, as it is now called, 
is ready for the paper machine, where the pulp is made 
into sheets of paper. 



PARAFFINE. 175 

Before the introduction of the Fourdrinier machine the 
pulp was made into sheets of paper by hand. When the 
sheets come from the machine they are of course wet, 
and are then hung up to dry. When dry the operation 
of sizing follows. For writing paper this is performed 
by dipping the dry sheets in animal sizing, a weak solu- 
tion of glue. The sheets are again hung up to dry, after 
which they are pressed, calendered, and otherwise worked 
as their quahty may require. Wrapping paper is gen- 
erally made from straw, flax, hemp, manilla and also 
rags. It is packed for market in bundles and sold either 
by the ream, or by the pound. Paper sacks are manu- 
factured by machinery and immense quantities are used 
by the retail trade. A waterproof paper has lately ap- 
peared in the market and is very useful in the handling 
of butter, lard, or any greasy or wet material. It is 
made of thin, transparent paper, dipped in a solution of 
some kinds of wax, or paraffine. 

Parailine, a white, waxy solid resembling spermaceti, 
found native in petroleum as obtained from the oil wells, 
in the mineral wax azocerite which is found in great quan- 
tities in Spain and Austria, also in coal and shale oil, 
and is a product of the destructive distillation of many 
organic substances. It may be obtained from an}^ of 
these substances, by first freeing them from their more 
volatile components by the process of fractional distilla- 
tion, and then cooling and pressing the residue, after 
which it is purified by treatment with sulphuric acid and 
caustic soda. When pure, paraffine is colorless, taste- 
less, and odorless. Its specific gravity is 0.870, it molts 
at from 113° to 149° F. and boils at 600^ F. It is in- 



176 PAEIS GREEN. 

soluble in water but readily soluble in boiling alcoliol 
from -^hieli it crj'stallizes out almost entirely upon cool- 
ing. It is ver3'^ little affected hy any of the acids or al- 
kalies. Paraffine is rapidh^ becoming of much impor- 
tance in the arts and is alread}' applied to mRnj economic 
uses, although it was discovered so recently as 1830 and 
not produced in an}^ quantitiy until since 1860. Its most 
important api^Mcation is perhaps in the manufacture of 
candles (wnich see) . It is also largely used for water- 
proofing fabrics and leather for shoes. Dress silks are 
frequently treated with it, being thus protected from 
stains if hquids chance to be spilled upon them. It is 
employed to a considerable extent in the manufacture of 
electrical apparatus, being valuable from its high resis- 
tance to the passage of the current. Chewing gum in 
large quantities is now made from paraffine (See Kero- 
sene.) 

Paris Green, the popular name in America of the 
Aceto-Arsenite of Copper ^ V^' >- O2+3 CuOAs^Oa. 
It is more properly known as Schweinfui*t green, the 
name Paris green being applied in Europe to an entirely 
different pigment. 

It is a powder of a rich gi*een color and has been long in 
use as a pigment for which purpose it would be yerj val- 
uable if it were not for its intensely poisonous character. 
In paint it produces one of the finest gi'een colors possi- 
ble to obtain. It is much used for coloring paper, espec- 
ially wall paper, but this practice cannot be too strongh' 
condemned, as children are often poisoned by chewing 
such paper, and all who hve in houses whose walls are 



PARIS GREEN. 177 

covered with paper colored with this material are liable 
to be seriously and even fatally poisoned b}' minute par- 
ticles which become separated from the paper and float 
in the air of the room. Numerous cases of wholesale 
poisoning from this source are to be found in medical 
statistics. 

Since the appearance of the Colorado potato beetle, 
Paris green has become familiarly known and very gen- 
erally used throughout the entire country, for the de- 
struction of this insect pest. For this purpose it is first 
mixed in the proportion, of one part to twenty or thirty, 
or even more, of some dry substance as gj^sum or flour ; 
or two or three spoonsful are stirred into a pail of water 
and the vines are then sprinkled with this dry or wet 
mixture. As thus employed it is very effective in de- 
stroying the beetle and is the only effective remedy which 
has been found available where the insect appears in 
great numbers. Strong fears were entertained when it 
was first used in this way, that ill efiecls would result 
from the poison being absorbed by the potato or that 
wells in the vicinity would become poisoned by it. It 
has however been conclusively shown that it is soon ren- 
dered insoluble and harmless by combining with other 
elements found in the soil. Its long continued use 
throughout the western United States, without a single 
evil result being recorded is a sufficient answer from ex- 
perience to any fears that may be entertained. It is of 
course necessary that gTeat care be exercised in handling 
the material and man^^ accidents have resulted from care- 
lessness in leaving it where it might be gotten at by chil- 
dren or animals. 



1 78 PARSLEY — PEACHES . 

Parsley (Petroselinnm sati-vTim) a biennial umbellife- 
rous herb cultivated in gardens. It is in more general 
use for garnishing meats than any other vegetable of our 
gardens. It is also extensively used in soups, stews, 
etc. It comes into use dming the fall and winter and 
spring. 

Parsnip, (Pastinaca sativa) a plant of the Parsley fam- 
ily ; root biennial, fusiform, large and fleshy ; stem 3-5 
feet high, rather stout, furrowed and branching. It is a 
native of Europe but now of universal cultivation, for its 
fine, esculent root, which in the best varieties are remark- 
ably rich and marrow like. A number of varieties are in 
cultivation but they closely resemble each other, and 
their peculiarities are probably determined by the soil on 
which they are raised. 

Pea (Pisum sati^n.im) a well known plant of the order 
Leguminosese, and largely cultivated in the market gar- 
dens. It matures at widely different dates in tlie noi-thern 
and southern sections of the country. 

The pea is used as an article of food for both man and 
beast, and one species P. Arvemse in some regions is large- 
ly cultivated as a forage plant. Peas are eaten both in 
the green and dry state. In the dry state large quanti- 
ties are shipped to England where the dry pea is much 
more used than in this country. The canning of gTcen 
peas is quite an industry and it is aways found on gro- 
cers shelves. The native country of the pea is unknown ; 
but it is cultivated largety in Eui'ope as well as in this 
country. 

Peaclies, the fruit of the Prunus Persicctj a small tree 
belonging to the Rose familyj and native of Central 



PEACHES 179 

Asia. Peaclies are grown in nearty all warm, temperate 
climates, the northern limit at which they are hard}" in 
ordinary situations in the United States being about 42° 
north latitude, or about the isothermal line of 50° F. 
The more noted peach growing sections of this country 
are portions of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and 
Illinois, and a narrow belt along the lake shore in west- 
ern Michigan. 

Peaches are of two principal varieties, chngstones and 
freestones and of each of these there are numerous sub- 
varieties some of the best of which are Hale's early, 
Crawford's early, early York, Red Rareripe, Old Mixon 
Free, Smock Free, and Crawford's Late. Fresh peach- 
es are sold very extensive^ in the larger markets but 
from their tendency to decay require to be handled rapid- 
ly. They are put up in baskets varying in size from a 
half peck to a bushel and sold by the basket but 
rarely measured. It is very desirable that some uni- 
formity or regulation in regard to baskets should be 
adopted in order to avoid the present uncertaint}^ in re- 
gard to quantity in handling this fruit. Great quantites 
of peaches are now put up in cans and form the most 
staple of the canned fruits. Very many are also dried 
but from the great loss of flavor this method of preserv- 
ing them is much less common than before the process of 
canning was resorted to. Peach brand}^ is made in con- 
siderable quantities by distilling ripe peaches. 

Peach trees and fruit are subject to a very serious 
disease known as the yellows^ which in many sections of 
the country threatens to entirely prevent the growing of 
this fi'uit. The disease also renders unfit for use many 



180 PEA NUTS. 

of the peaches which are now sold in our markets. The 
spnptoms of this disease are, in the tree, a production of 
numerous wire like shoots from the sides of the hmbs and 
a 3^ellow color of the leaves ; in the fruit, 1st premature 
ripening ; the fruit being ripe from two to four weeks be- 
fore its proper time ; 2nd the presence of patches and 
spots of a deep pm-ple color upon the peach, no matter 
what is its proper tint ; 3d a deeper color, watery condi- 
tion, and insipid taste of the flesh. 

The cause of the disease is not well understood. 
Many have been led to beheve that it was caused by an 
attack of fungoid parasites, whilst others have supposed 
that it was due to overbearing and poor cultivation. It 
is undoubtedly true that trees which have become weak- 
ened by such means are more liable to the attacks of the 
disease than strong and vigorous ones. 

It is also a question of dispute whether the disease is 
contagious or not, although it is well known that if the 
disease makes appearance in an orchard the whole will 
soon be destroyed unless the diseased trees be at once 
removed. 

The yellows are known only in the northern United 
States ; the southern United States and Europe having 
never been troubled by the disease. No effective remedy 
is known. 

Pea Nuts, Ground Nuts, the fruit of the AracMs hy- 
pogece, an annual plant of the order Liguminosese, native 
of South America. It is cultivated in the southern Unit- 
ed States, in southern Europe, in Africa and Asia. The 
plant is of a trailing, stragghng habit, growing to a height 
of about two feet. It has a remarkably interesting peculi- 



PEARS. 181 

arity in the manner of producing its fruit. After the flow- 
ers have fallen off, the young pods are, by a natural mo- 
tion of the stems, forced into the ground to a depth of 
three or four inches, where they remain to develope and 
ripen, and from whence they are obtained by pulling the 
vines to which they adhere. This pecuharity has led to 
the quite prevalent but false idea that the pods grow upon 
the roots of the plant. Peanuts furnish a very important 
article of food among many of the negro tribes of Africa, 
and the}^ are also extensively grown in that country for 
the manufacture of oil, which is entensively used to adul- 
terate olive oil, and great quantities of which are also 
sold as ohve oil without the admixture of any of the gen- 
uine article. By many it is claimed to be fully equal in 
value to olive oil. In this country since the war the crop 
has become of much importance in Virginia and some 
other southern states. There are two well marked vari- 
eties, the Virginia and Carolina or African^ the former 
having a much larger pod, and the bean is sold for eating 
while the latter is used principally for the manufacture 
of oil. An average crop of peanuts is 50 or 60 bushels 
to the acre. 

Pears, the fruit of Pyrus communis^ a small tree be- 
longing to the order Rosaceae, native of Europe but now 
cultivated in all temperate climates. Pears have been 
cultivated from the earliest historic time, but all of the 
varieties now considered at all valuable are of quite recent 
origin, greater improvement haAdng probabl}' been made in 
the quaht}^ of this fruit within a comparativel}" few 3'ears 
than in any other. Many varieties of the pear are nearly- 
as hardy and as easily grown as apples, whilst some of the 



182 PECAN PEPPER. 

best varieties are quite tender and liable to be destroyed 
by the cold winters of the northern United States. The 
Pear is grown both as a standard, budded or grafted upon 
pear seedhngs, and as a dwarf by grafting it upon quince 
stock. The thorn and mountain ash are sometimes used 
as dwarf stocks. Dwarf trees come into bearing much 
younger than standards and in some varieties the quality 
is improved by the quince stock. There are now upward 
of one thousand varieties of pears in cultivation, a few 
of the best of which are Bartlett, Do^^enne d'Ete, Flemish 
Beaut}^ Belle Lucrative, Sick el, Beurre d'Anjou, Duch- 
esse d'Angouleme, Jarganelle, Lawrence and Winter 
Nelis. Most varieties are much improved in quahty by 
being picked from the trees some days before ripening 
and placed in a cool, dark place to ripen. Some are al- 
most entbely worthless if allowed to ripen on the tree. 
Pears are sold in market either fresh or put up in her- 
metically sealed cans. 

Pecan, {Gary a olivceformis) a species of hickory grow- 
ing on river banks from Indiana southward to Texas. 
The tree is tall and straight, reaching to a height of 60 to 
70 feet. It has annually an abundance of sweet fla- 

vored nuts, their husks being thin and the shells soft and 
easily broken, and of a yellowish brown or ohve color. 
In gardens where it is well sheltered it will bear the win- 
ters as far north as the Hudson River. Its culture was 
introduced into France many years ago. Pecan nuts form 
quite an article of commerce, and are sold by the pound. 

Pepper. Black Pepper and White Pepper are both 
the fruit of Pijyer Nigrum. The plant is a native of India 
and is cultivated throughout the whole of the tropics and 



PICKEREL. 183 

particularly in Java, Sumatra, Borneo and Molucca ;* it is 
also largel}^ raised in the the tropical regions of America. 
It is a shrubby plant, eight or ten feet in length and when 
cultivated, requires support by trellises or by planting 
against some rough-barked tree. The plant is propagat- 
ed by cutting and comes into bearing in three or four 
years after planting, and furnishes two crops a year for 
eleven or twelve years. The fruit is a berry, small, pro- 
duced in spikes, green at first, then changing to red, and 
black when fully ripe. When ripe they are gathered and 
spread on mats to dry, and trodden under foot to separate 
them from their spikes. White pepper is the ripe berry, 
deprived of its skin by soaking it in water, rubbing it off 
and drying it in the sun. It is of less value than the 
black pepper and is not so general^ employed. Pepper 
is used as a condiment, and is a warm, carminative stim- 
ulant ; it strengthens the stomach and assists digestion. 
In the tropics the inhabitants use it with all their food, 
drink it in decoction and make fermented Hquors from it. 
The ground pepper of our shops is largely adulterated with 
mustard, ground rice, wheat etc. Pepper dust, the ref- 
use and sweepings of ware rooms, is used to mix with the 
ground article. For the year ending June 30, 1875, there 
was consumed in the United States pepper to the value 
of $922,941. 

Africa, the East and West Indies furnish the .largest 
part of the spices consumed in this coTintr}^ 

Pickerel or Pike, a name applied to the mau}^ species 
of fish of one genus, Esox. All the species bear a gen- 
eral resemblance to each other, and most people are fa- 
miliar with some of the man}^ species. They differ in 



184 PICKLES. 

the length of the snout, the number of rays in the dorsal 
and anal fins and in the color. The pike is a very strong, 
active and fierce fish : it darts from its cover with ex- 
treme velocity, swallowing small fish, water-rats and even 
small aquatic birds. It is called the shark of fresh 
waters, and is very destructive to other fish. The com- 
mon lake pike reaches a length of three feet ; the back is 
of a deep greenish-brown color, the sides with numerous 
rounded, oblong and pale yellow spots. The common 
pike or pickerel abounds in all the rivers and lakes of the 
northern United States, and is excellent for eating. Large 
numbers are taken through the ice in winter, by means 
of a hook, and sent to market in a frozen condition. The 
lake pickerel is also salted and packed in barrels, but its 
flesh is not very good in this condition. 

Pickles, vegetables of various sorts, as cucumbers, 
onions, green beans, cabbage, mushrooms ; also fruits, 
as melons, pears, peaches, unripe nuts, etc., preserved 
in vinegar, and to be eaten as a condiment. 'They are 
generally prepared by being allowed to steep some time 
in salt water and then parboiled and transferred into vin- 
egar, along with salt and various spices, such as ginger, 
pepper, allspice, mustard, pepper pods, etc. East India 
pickles are flavored with currie powder mixed with mus- 
tard and garlic. The vinegar is sometimes put on the 
pickles in a cold state, or it ma}' be boihng. Immense 
quantities of pickles are used, especially on shipboard, and 
they form an almost necessary article of diet. In order 
to render them more attractive they are often colored by 
the addition of sulphate of copper, or b}^ boiling the vin- 
egar in copper vessels. Most of the vinegar used in 



PIE PLANT PIPE. 185 

pickling contains sulphuric acid, and this acting on the 
copper of the kettle forms sulphate of copper, a deadly 
poison. Pickles are now put up colored and uncolored, 
so that there is no necessity of using the colored article. 
The presence of copper may easily be detected b}' its giv- 
ing a blue color to a solution of ammonia. For the acid 
in the vinegar, see Vinegar. 

Pie Plant (see Rhubarb) . 

Pine Apple, {Ananassa sativa) a native of South 
America but now cultivated in Florida and the "West In- 
dies and to some extent in the East. In England they 
are cultivated in hot houses erected for the purpose and 
consequently are very costly. The fruit called the pine- 
apple is not in reality one fruit, but a collection of man}^, 
what are called the pips being the true fruit, so that the 
pine-apple is a head formed of many fruits closely united 
together. Before maturity the fruit of the pine-apple is 
almost caustic and its use is then attended with danger. 
The plant is propagated by suckers and crowns, the fruit 
maturing in from three to four months after planting the 
suckers. The fruit varies in size from one to nine or ten 
pounds. 

Pine Apples should be cut before fully ripe, leaving on 
a stem several inches in length, and with the crown ad- 
hering to the tip. The leaves of the plant 3ield an excel- 
lent fibre and in the East the natives manufacture from 
it a cloth known as Pina Mushn. Pine-apples are also 
canned for the market. 

Pipe, an implement for the smoking of tobacco. It 
consists of a bowl of wood, stone, clay or meerschaum, 
and a tube either stiff or flexible, long or short, and con- 



186 PLUMS PORK. 

nected with a mouthpiece, through which the smoke is 
drawn. Pipes of clsij are largel}^ manufactured in Eng- 
land and imported into this country. 

Plums. The old cultivated varieties are generally re- 
ferred to Frunus domestica, a native of the Old World. 
It grows to a height of twelve or fifteen feet and branch- 
ing. The flower precedes the leaves ; the fruit is a drupe, 
oval, of various colors from black to pale gi'eenish-yellow, 
covered with bloom, and the flesh rather fine. Numerous 
forms of this have been in cultivation, but the ravages of 
the plum curculio have been so bad that the culture is 
comparatively abandoned. Among the best varieties of 
the cultivated plums are the Washington, Duane's Purple, 
Yellow Egg and Green Gage. The American wild plum, 
Prunus Americana^ grows wild in thickets, along fence 
rows and banks of streams, from Canada to Texas. The 
fruit is red and in its wild state is rather small and un- 
pleasant, but it is much improved by cultivation and al- 
though of a pleasant flavor when fully mature, is not 
adapted to culinary purposes. The foreign or garden 
plums when fully ripened are among the most delicious 
of our fruits. 

Pollock, a name applied to several species of fish of 
the genus Merlangus^ and members of the cod famil3^ 
They have a general resemblance to the cod, being gen- 
eralty of a greenish or darkish color above, and white or 
whitish on the belly. They range in length from one to 
three feet. They are valuable as food, and some of the 
species are cured similar to the cod but are less valuable 
than the latter fish. 

Pork and Pork Packing. The importance of the 



PORK. 187 

trade in pork and lard is so great that an extensive de- 
scription of its production will be given. The great pork 
packing points in this country are the cities of Chicago 
and Cincinnati. The method pursued in both places is 
very similar. The buildings are of large size and strongly 
constructed. In those of three stories, the lower floor is 
used for curing and storing the material, the second floor 
for packing and shipping, and the third for cooling and 
cutting up the hogs. The roof is constructed flat and 
very heavy and tight, and divided off into yards and pens, 
and will in some cases hold as high as 4,000 heads at 
once. The animals are driven up an inclined plane to 
the roof, where they are allowed to remain for a few days 
before being killed. When all is ready for kilhng, the 
hogs are driven, some twenty at once, into a small pen 
with a fine-grated floor. A man then enters, and, with a 
long-handled hammer, deals each hog a heavy blow on the 
forehead, between the eyes, which instantly drops him 
to the floor. After he has lain a few moments another 
man enters the pen, and with a sharp knife sticks each 
hog, the blood flowing through the grating and being con- 
ducted by spouts to large tanks out-side the building. 
While this is done another lot is driven into an adjoining 
pen and served in the same manner. 

The first lot, by this time having sufficiently bled, is slid 
down an inclined plane directly into the scalding tub or 
vat, made of wood, some six feet wide, twent}^ feet long 
and three feet deep, the water in which is heated hj steam 
pipes and kept at a regular temperature ; here they are 
floated along and turned by men at the sides until they 
are taken out by a simple contrivance, operated by a sin- 



188 PORK. 

gle man, and deposited upon the end of a long inclined 
table. Two men stand ready and take from the back in 
an instant all the bristles that are suitable for the brush 
maker and cobbler, depositing them in boxes and barrels 
for removal. Another pair of men standing on opposite 
sides of the table divest another part of the hog of its 
coat, and so on through some eight or ten pairs of men, 
who each have a different part to perform in the cleansing 
of the hog, until it reaches the last pair, who put in the 
gambrel sticks and swing it on a track on an overhead 
railway, where it receives a shower bath of clean, cold 
water, washing it clean from an}^ particles of dirt, and 
giving it a final scrape with the knives. It then passes 
along to a man who opens it and removes the large intes- 
tines. It then passes to a second man who takes out the 
small intestines, heart, lights, etc. ; the hog then receives 
a thorough drench of clean water and passes to another 
man, who sphts the backbone down. They are then tak- 
en from the hooks and borne away by overhead railways 
and hung up to cool, one man being sufficient to handle 
the largest hog with ease. At this point a man loos- 
ens up the leaf-lard, ready to be removed when cooled, 
which, together with the splitting of the back-bone, helps 
much to cool the meat. The hogs are allowed to hang 
for about two days before being cut up. The fat on the 
small intestines is removed by men and boys, and after 
being washed is ready to be placed in the lard tank. 

After cooling, the hog is read}" to be cut up, and is car- 
ried from the cooling room to the cutting room, each hog 
being weighed as he is brought up, and a record kept of 
the weight. Having been rolled on the block one blow 



PORK. 189 

from an immense cleaver severs the head from the body ; 
another blow severs the saddle, or hind parts containing 
the hams ; another lays it open on the back ; another one 
for each leg. The leaf lard being already loosened is now 
stripped from the carcass. The remainder of the hog is 
then cut up into the various kinds of meat it is most suit- 
ed for, the whole operation taking but a few moments of 
time, two good men having cut over 2,000 in less than 
eight hom'S. A day's work is ordinarily from 1,100 to 
1,200 head. 

The building for the extraction of lard adjoins the main 
building, separated by a heavy wall, and is also three sto- 
ries in height. In the second story are arranged several 
iron tanks, made of heavy boiler iron, twelve feet high, 
and six feet in diameter, capable of sustaining a high 
pressure. These extend up through the floor above into 
the third story, where each one is provided with a large 
manhole, into which the leaf lard, head, gut lard, and 
pork trimmings are emptied, until the tank is full, when 
it is closed and the whole subjected to a jet of steam from 
the boilers, of a pressure of fifteen pounds per inch ; each 
tank is supplied with a safety valve, so that on reaching 
the maximum pressure allowed, it passes off, forcing a 
continual flow of steam through the whole mass. By this 
process every particle of lard is set free. One of the 
tanks is reserved for making wliite grease^ in which the 
paunches, intestines, etc., and the refuse from the slaugh- 
ter houses are placed and subjected to the same steam 
process. Another tank is used for trying out dead hogs 
which have been killed by accident, into which the}^ are 
dumped whole. The product of this is known as yellow 



190 PORK. 

grease. After the mass in the lard tanks has had steam 
on for a jDroper time, a faucet is opened about the middle 
of the tank where the lard and water meet, and the lard 
is drawn off into an immense open iron tank, called a 
clarifier, with a concave bottom, provided with a steam 
jacket at the bottom; here it is heated up to 300° F., 
sending all foul matters in a thick scimi to the top, where 
it is skimmed off, all heavier matters setthng to the bot- 
tom. A faucet is then opened at the bottom, and the 
sediment withdrawn. The remaining lard is then run in- 
to coolers, and thence into barrels where it is weighed 
and branded pure lard. After the lard has been drawn 
from the tanks, a large manhole is opened at the bottom 
and the whole mass is drawn out in large wooden tanks 
set even with the floor. 

The mass is again subjected to a boiling heat, and all 
the remaining lard is set free and runs to the top. The 
water is then di^awn off and the sohd residue is used in 
the preparation of manui-e. In this residue you will find 
the bones and even the teeth so soft as to be readily 
crushed by the fingers. The bristles and hair are pm-- 
^ chased and but httle of the original hog is wasted. The 
cming room occupies the lower floor. The first process 
is to di'ess all the meats except the shoulders, with a so- 
lution of saltiDetre, which is apphed with a swab to the 
gi'een meat, and while wet with it is covered and rubbed 
with salt, and then packed in tiers to cure. In three 
weeks it is all handled over and treated to a second 
di'essing of salt, and again m seven days more when it is 
pronounced cured. After a few da^'s the Enghsh meats 
are carefully scraped and smoothed off preparatory to 



PORK, 191 

packing;. These meats are usually packed in square 
boxes containing 500 pounds. The barrel meat is 
packed in the second story. Enough pieces of the va- 
rious kinds are weighed out for a barrel ; it should be 
200 pounds, but 190 to 196 pounds is generally put in as 
it is found the pork increases in weight by the absorption 
of brine. It is then packed, a layer of meat, then salt, 
untn filled, the whole are then headed and branded. 
Each barrel is then filled with brine and allowed to stand 
with a small bung open a short time. More brine is ad- 
ded if necessary and the bung closed. Most of the hams 
are cured and smoked. The curing process varies with 
different houses, some applying the saltpeter and salt 
and packing in bulk to cure ; while others prepare a 
pickle (sweet pickle) by the use of three ounces of salt- 
petre and one to two quarts of molasses for a brine, the 
brine being made to show 30° of saltness by the meter 
After the meat has lain a sufficient time in the pickle it 
is taken out and packed in bulk for curing, or hung up 
and allowed to remain for several weeks ; after this the 
hams may be smoked if so desired. For summer shipment 
the hams are wrapped in paper and canvassed ; the can- 
vass being generally covered with a preparation of 
chrome yellow ; and in its use great care should be taken 
as it is a deadly poison. Hams shipped to England are 
seldom smoked but are shipped in pickle. 

The various terms apphed to packed pork are general- 
ly as follows : 

Clear Pork, is pork put up of ribs with the sides 
out. 

Mess Pork is made of the sides of the thickest and 



192 PORK. 

fattest hogs, cut into strips six to seven inches wide run- 
ning from back to belly. 

ORDINARY Mess Pork is cut as above but made from 
lighter hogs ranging from 170 to 200 pounds. 

Prime Mess is cut from a still lighter class ranging 
from 100 to 150 pounds, the shoulder being included. 
It is generally cut into four pound pieces so that fifty 
should make a barrel. 

In the cutting of meats for the Enghsh markets the 
following are the terms and description : 

Short Ribbed Middles. This is the side of the me- 
dium weight hog (shoulder and ham oflP) the bone re- 
moved, and the ribs cracked through the middle. 

Short Clear is the same part cut from the best hogs 
with back bone and all the ribs taken out. 

Long Clear is the side including the shoulder with all 
bones removed. 

Long Pie is the same as above with the shoulder and 
back bone out ; ribs left in. 

Cumberlands is the shoulder and side together, with 
back bone out ; the shank cut short. 

Stretfords sides and shoulders together ; the should- 
er and bone taken out, shank left in ; back bone and up- 
per half of rib removed. 

Long English Hams is the whole hip bone being left 
in and the ham left the full size. 

Bacon, made from the shoulders and ribs and known 
as n5, dear rib having the back bone sawed out ; and 
clear being free from both back bone and ribs. 

Lard oil is made by placing the lard in heavy duck 
bagging, and subjecting it to heavy pressure ; the re- 



PORT WINE POTATO. 193 

siduum being stearine largely used in the manufacture of 
candles. 

To recapitulate the products derived from the hog we 
have; No. 1. Lard, Common lard or grease, Inferior 
grease, Lard oil. Red oil, Oieine oil. Glycerine and 
Stearine. 

Port Wine, a wine supposed to be shipped from Opor- 
to, Portugal. (See Wine.) 

Potash, the name apphed to a commercial article con- 
sisting of carbonate of potassium, and caustic potassa 
together with various impurities. It is obtained by the 
lixiviation of wood ashes, in connection with hme. The 
lye obtained by this means is evaporated, and the solid 
residue is sold as crude potash. It contains 40 per cent 
of impurities, chiefly sulphur and carbonaceous matter. 
For purification it is calcined in a reverberatory furnace 
by which means sulphur and carbon are expelled, but the 
potash is nearly all converted into the form of carbonate. 
For the preparation of pearlash this is again dissolved 
and filtered, and the solution evaporated with frequent 
stirring. Commercial potash is used in the preparation 
of the various potassium salts which are extensively used 
in the arts, and was formerly much used in the manufact- 
ure of soap, but is now replaced to a very great degree 
by the cheaper caustic soda. 

Potato, {Solanum tuberosum) tliis valuable food pro- 
ducing plant is a member of the night shade family, a 
family of plants having the most varied characteristics ; 
to this family belong tobacco, belladonna and henbane, 
as well as the egg plant, tomato and capsicum. The po- 
tato is an annual plant, with stem two or thi^ee feet high, 



194 POTATO. 

thick and fleshy, dissected leaves, and flowers in termi- 
nal corj^mbs, with bluish white corolla and yellow an- 
thers. Berries globose, about half an inch in diameter. 
The potato is cultivated for its tubers^ which are simply 
the thickened underground stem, composed mostly of 
starch, and furnished with eyes or buds, from which 
start the new plant. The potato is a native of the table- 
lands of Mexico, Peru and Chili, where it is yet found 
growing in its wild state. Its culture is said to have 
been carried from Florida to Virginia by the Spanish ex- 
plorers, and from Virginia to England in 1565, by Sir 
John Hawldns ; it was cultivated in Ireland in 1610, 
where they furnish three-fifths to four-fifths of the entire 
food of the people. In the eighteenth century it was 
cultivated in the New England States ; it is now of al- 
most universal cultivation in Europe and America and is 
the most productive of our food bearing plants ; the same 
amount of ground 3delding thirty times greater weight 
of potatoes than of wheat. 

Potatoes, besides water, consist almost wholly of 
starch, with small proportions of sugar and nitrogen. As 
a sole article of food they are not well adapted, and are 
eaten in connection with other foods. Potatoes are of 
easy cultivation and will 3deld well in soils of even mod- 
erate richness. They are planted in hUls or di'illed in 
rows, and are dug both by hand and by machinery. They 
should be well protected from the light, as this acts on 
the bitter principle found in the potato, and causes them 
to tm-n green. Potatoes are propagated by their tubers, 
as their characters are not well enough fixed to be raised 
from seed. A large number of varieties are in cultiva- 



PRUNES. 195 

tion and new ones are constantly being added. The 
best varieties seem to deteriorate by long cultivation and 
new ones must take their place. Among the best varie- 
ties now in cultivation are the Early Eose, Peachblows, 
Snowflake, Extra Early Vermont and Comp ton's Sur- 
prise. In 1870 the production of potatoes in the United 
States was 143,337,473 bushels. Of late years the Col- 
orado Potato Beetle has done serious damage to the po- 
tato crop, but its ravages are now stayed by artificial 
means and no great alarm is now manifested. Potatoes 
yield by distillation a brandy known as potato spirit, and 
largely used in the adulteration of wine brandy. 

Pmnes are the dried fruit of certain kinds of plums, 
such as the Green Gage and St. Catherine. Prunes are 
largely produced in France, Germany, Spain and Turkey. 
The French process of dijing plums is as follows ; when 
the fruit is so ripe that it falls by slightly shaking the 
tree, they are gathered and spread out separately on 
frames, or sieves made of lath or wicker work, for sever- 
al days exposed to the sun till they become quite soft. 
They are afterward put into a spent oven, shut up quite 
close for twenty-four hours and then taken out. The ov- 
en is reheated rather warmer than it was before, and the 
plums are put in again. The next da}^ they are taken 
out and turned by slightly shaking the sieve. The oven 
is again heated, but one fourth hotter than before, and 
they are put in a third time and after remaining in for 
twentj^-four hours, are taken out and allowed to get cold. 
They are then rounded, an operation which is performed 
by turning the stone in the plum without breaking the 
skin, and pressing the two ends together between the 



196 PRUNES. 

thumb and finger. They are again put on the sieves, 
which are placed in an oven from which the bread has 
been just drawn. The oven is then tightly closed ; an 
hour afterwards the plums are taken out and a cup of 
water placed in the oven ; when the water is so warm as 
to just be Able to bear the finger in it, the prunes are 
placed again in the oven and allowed to remain for twen- 
ty-four hours when the operation is finished. They are 
then packed loosely into small, long and rather deep 
boxes for sale. 

The commori sorts ar& gathered by shaking the trees, 
but the finer kind for making the French prunes are 
gathered in the morning by taking hold of the stem and 
picking them so as not to touch the fruit. They are 
placed in baskets containing vine leaves and are not al- 
lowed to touch each other. When the baskets are filled 
they are removed to the fruit room, where they are al- 
lowed to remain for two or three days exposed to the 
sun and the air, after which they are cui'ed by the proc- 
ess above described. These are the fine, fleshy plums 
used for dessert.. The most of the French prunes are 
made from the St. Julia plum and are of secondary qual- 
ity. All the prunes received in this country are compar- 
atively of poor qualit}^ as the best are retained for home 
use. In commerce prunes are distinguished as Turkey 
and French. The former being supposed to come from 
Turkey, but are largely obtained from Spian and Ger 
many. The value of the prunes and plums consumed in 
the United States for 1874-5 was a little over $ 1,600, 
000. Prunelles are the finest sort of prunes. Prunes 



PUMPKINS ^RADISH. 197 

are extensively employed in cookery and to some extent 
in medicine. 

Pumpkins, (Cucurbita Pepo) a coarse ranning vine 
belonging to the Gourd family. The vine reaches a 
length of ten to thirty feet, sparingly branched. Fruit is 
of various forms, sizes and colors, the flesh of the rind 
usually 3^ellow, the cavity loosely filled with a yellow 
stringy pulp. It is generally raised with Indian Corn. • 
It is a native of the East. Pumpkins are largely offered 
for sale in all our markets, and are used in soups and the 
making of pies ; the ' ' pumpkin pie" of New England 
has passed into history. The pumpkin is of great value 
as food for cattle ; but as a garden vegetable it is infe- 
rior to the squash which must ultimately take its place. 
Pumpkins are also dried, and ground pumpkin in the 
form of ' ' flour" or ' ' meal" is also an article of com- 
merce. 

Quince (Cydonia vulgaris) a shrub, native of the 
south of Europe, but largely cultivated in England and 
in this country. It belongs to the Eose family of plants, 
along with the apple, pear, etc. Its fruit, of which there 
are several varieties, is seldom eaten raw, but is stewed 
and used in making pies and puddings. It makes an ex- 
cellent marmalade and is also largely made into pre- 
serves. The best varieties of the quince are the Orange 
and Portugal. 

Kadish, (Raphanus Sativus) a plant of the mustard 
family, a native of China and cultivated for its fleshy 
root. There are numerous sub species and varieties in 
cultivation. The root varies in shape from globose to 
fusiform, and may be white, red or black in color. Rad- 



198 RAISINS. 

ishes are used in immense quantities as a table relish, 
though not containing much nutriment. Early radishes 
are largely raised in th« southern markets and shipped to 
the north where they bring good prices and find a ready 
sale. Among the best varieties for summer cultiTation 
are the Long scarlet, Short Top, Scarlet Tm-nip, Scarlet 
Ohve shaped and white Turnip and Long White. For 
fall and winter use we have the Yellow and Grey Tm*nip 
rooted, Rose colored Chinese and Black Spanish. 

Raisins, the dried fruit of certain species of gi'apes. 
There are several varieties of gTapes in market, but the 
best are obtained from Spain. The finest raisins are aU 
made near Malaga, and are known as Malaga or Mus- 
catel. The country in the region of Malaga is very 
rocky but every spot that will hold a plant is utilized and 
the whole product is converted into raisins. The grape 
which produces them is the large white Muscatel. These 
grapes are dried on the ^dne in the sun ; the leaves are 
removed, and the stem partly severed and they are al- 
lowed to remaui until cm-ed. These have a fine flavor, 
retain their freshness, and are less hable to have a sac- 
charine deposit on the surface. The other species of rai- 
sins are dried, after being picked from the vine, either in 
the sun or in heated rooms. Duiing the drying they are 
sprinkled several times with lye water, which causes them 
to deposit a saccharine matter on the outside. The best 
qualities of Yalentias and Denias are hung on hues to dry 
and dipped in lye once or twice duiing the operation. 

The TmMsh raisins are the Sultanas and Black Smyr- 
na. The Sultanas are without seed and small, and com- 
monly known as seedless raisins. We have in market 



RAPE SEED RHUBARB. 199 

three kinds of raisins. The true Muscatel which are the 
finest, should be packed in boxes of twenty-five pounds, 
and in half and quarter boxes. Sun oi Bloom rids- 
ins are prepared in the same manner as the Muscatel 
but from a large grape, the Uva Larga. These are gen- 
erally packed in boxes but sometimes in casks. Those 
in boxes s^e called bunch or layer raisins, and the others 
which are generally of an inferior quality, are sepa- 
rated from their stems. The Lexias raisins are packed 
in casks or grass mats called " frails." These raisins are 
of an inferior kind and require to be dipped in lye of 
wood ashes, with a little oil before drying. The raisins 
in boxes are partly Bloom or Sun, but mostly Muscatels. 
The barrels and frails are chiefly Lexias. The raisins of 
commerce are derived from Spain, Turkey and Sicily. 
Raisins of a superior quahty are also in market from Cal- 
ifornia. Raisins are bought and sold by the box, and 
there is no uniform weight in the packages. They should 
be bought and sold by the pound, and a reform is much 
needed in this direction. 

The value of the raisins consumed in the United States 
for the year ending June 30, 1875, was $ 2,433,155. 

Rape Seed. The seed of Brassica napus, a plant 
closely related to the turnip and belonging to the same 
family. The plant is cultivated for its herbage and for 
its seeds. From the seeds are obtained rape oil, so ex- 
tensively used for machinery, and the residue after the 
oil is expressed is known as rape cake. The seeds are 
also used as food for cage birds. 

Rhubarb or Pie Plant, liheum Bhaponticum, a 
plant of the buckwheat famil}-, and a native of Scj'thia, 



200 RICE. 

is now largety cultivated for market purposes in the vi- 
cinity of all large cities, and few private gardens are 
without it. The plant is cultivated for its flesh}^, acid 
petioles or leaf stalks, which are used in earl}^ spring as a 
substitute for fruit in making pies and sauces. The root 
of other species furnishes the medicinal rhubarb. Among 
the varieties of rhubarb cultivated b}^ the gardeners, are, 
the Linnaeus, Victoria and Cahoon ; from the latter wine 
is manufactui'ed, but it is of inferior quahty. 

Rice, {Oryza Sativa) a food producing plant, a mem- 
ber of the grass famil3\ Eice has been cultivated from 
the remotest antiquity, and, hke man}^ plants of long cul- 
tivation, its native country is unknown, but it is a native 
of the East. It is of the first importance as furnishing 
food to the human race, as nearly three fom'ths of the 
population of the world subsist on this grain, and even 
wheat is not more valuable. Rice is cultivated all over 
the tropical and sub-trojpical regions of both hemispheres. 
The vast populations of Eastern Asia subsist almost en- 
tirely on this grain. It is also cultivated in Southern 
Europe and Northern Africa. The plant is an annual 
and varies in height from one to six feet according to the 
variet}^, of which the number is almost unlimited ; in 
Ceylon alone there being enumerated over 160 varieties. 
The plant delights in wet, marshy situations, and the rice 
grounds are therefore in low, flat l3ing regions of coun- 
tr3% where water is abundant and migation can be prac- 
ticed if necessar3\ The upland rice (O. Mutica) is 
raised in Ceylon and Java and to some extent in the 
United States. This species has very long awns and 
grows to the height of thi-ee feet, having a slender culm 



RICE. 201 

or stalk. It is cultivated much as other small grain and 
is sown on high and dry uplands. The quality of the 
rice is good, but the yield is much less than that of the rice 
grown on bottom lands. In the East the Bengal rice is 
a favorite, while that preferred in the European markets 
is the " Patna rice", small grained and very white. But 
the best of all rice is the large, white and sweet grain 
known as the ' ' Carohna rice" and superior to all others 
in the market. It is of the variety known as gold seed 
rice, the most widely cultivated of all the varieties in this 
country. The grain is three eighths of an inch long, 
slightly flattened on two sides, of a deep yellow or gold- 
en color. When the husk and inner coat is removed, it is 
of a pearly white and somewhat translucent. 

Eice was introduced into this country in 1694. In that 
year a vessel from Madagascar took refuge in Charles- 
ton harbor, and the Captain presented a bag of rough 
rice or paddy to one of the citizens, who planted it, and, 
the crop being a success, its cultivation rapidly spread, 
not only over South Carolina but over all the Southern 
States. The rice cultivated in South Carolina is the 
lowland variety. The plantations are made from the 
swamps and rush lands lying adjacent to tide water riv- 
ers, and a little above the junction of salt and fresh wa- 
ter. The plantations are made perfectly level and the 
rice is subjected to extreme irrigation. The inland 
swamps are also utilized in the culture of rice, but are 
being abandoned for the lands nearer the coast. Louisi- 
ana rice is also of excellent qualit}^ and is of the lowland 
variety. The plantations are along the rivers, by means 
of which they can be irrigated when necessary. Louisi- 



( 



202 RICE. 

ana rice is inferfor to that of South Carolina, probably 
from deficiency in cultivation. When the grain reaches 
maturity it is cut with the sickle or cradle, and spread 
evenly on the stubble, where it is allowed to remain for 
a day till it is thoroughly dry. It is then bound into 
sheaves and put into shocks similar to wheat. It is then 
thrashed in the field, or taken to the barn yard and 
stacked in ricks. The operation of thrashing rice only 
removes the outer husk, the inner one being still attached 
to the grain. The grain is then winnowed and is fit to 
be taken to the mill. In this state it is known as ' ' pad- 
dy." To separate this inner husk from the rice requires 
expensive machinery and the planters take the rough rice 
to the pounding mills to have it cleaned. The rough rice 
is first ground between very hea^y stones running at a 
high speed, which partially removes the hull chaff. This 
chaff is conve^^ed out of the building by means of spouts, 
and the gi'ain conveyed by similar means into mortars 
where it is beat or pounded for a certain length of time 
by the alternate rising and faUing of very heavy pestles 
shod with iron. From these mortars, elevators carry the 
rice to the fans which separate the grain from the re- 
mains of the husks. From here it goes through other 
fans which divide it into three qualities, " whole", " mid- 
dhng" and " small." The whole rice is then passed 
through a pohshing screen, lined with gauze mre and 
sheep skins, which revolving vertically at the greatest 
possible speed gives it that pearly whiteness, with which 
it appears in commerce. From the screen the rice falls 
directly into a tierce which is slowly revolving and sti'uck 
on two sides with heavy hammers, so it can be filled to 



ROSIN. 203 

its greatest capacity. It is then coopered and sent to 
market ; these tierces average about 600 pounds of rice, 
net. The broken rice if freed from grit is equally as 
good food as the whole. The small rice is sometimes 
ground into flour, and is used to some extent to adulter- 
ate wheat flour to give it whiteness. Although rice con- 
stitutes so large a portion of the food of the human fam- 
ily, with us it is used more as a luxury in the form of 
puddings, cakes, jellies and soups. It is easy of digestion 
and an excellent food for invalids. The composition of 
Carolina rice, according to Bracannot, is 85.07 per cent, 
of starch; 3.60 of gluten ; 0.71 of gum; 0.29 of crystal- 
lizable sugar ; 0.13 of fixed oil ; 4.80 of vegetable fibre ; 
5.00 of water and 0.40 of saline substances. In the East, 
wines and fermented liquors are made from rice. In the 
year 1875 there were imported into this country 59,414, 
749 pounds of rice, valued at $ 1,547,697. For the same 
period there were exported 12,352,330 pounds, valued 
at $342,894. 

S<OSill, the residue remaining after distilling crude tur- 
pentine, obtained from the pine tree. The water and vol- 
atile oil pass over and the rosin remains as a pale yellow 
and transparent or brownish yellow, and translucent, ac- 
cording to the purity of the crude turpentine and the 
care taken in its manufacture. Rosin softens at 160° F. 
and melts at 275° F. Rosin enters largely into use in 
the manufactures and arts. It is used in varnish and 
cements, in plasters and ointments, in calking of ships, 
in the manufacture of soap, and in covering the bows of 
violins, to produce vibrations. It was formerly emplo3'ed 
in the production of rosin oil, and used for iUuminatiou. 



204 RUM — SAGO. 

Rosin of commerce is mostly furnished by North Carolina 
and Virginia. 

Rum, a spirituous hquor distilled from molasses. It 
is almost exclusively a West Indian product. It is made 
from fresh cane juice and the scum which rises in the 
manufacture of sugar ; also from a mixture of the scums 
and molasses, or from molasses alone. The rum prepar- 
ed from the above mixtures differs considerably in the vol- 
atile oils and ethers, and therefore in the flavor of the 
rum. The most is prepared by taking equal quantities 
of the skimmings of the sugar pans, of lees or returns, 
as they are commonly called, and of water, and to 100 
gallons of this wash are added 10 gallons of molasses. 
After ten or fifteen days of fermentation and distillation 
it jields about 10 per cent, of rum, or one gallon from ten 
of wort. Every plantation produces sugar, molasses and 
rum. The rum thus distilled is colorless and is some- 
times sold as white rum, but it is generally colored by 
the addition of caramel or burnt sugar. Pineapples and 
guavas are also added during distillation, to produce new 
flavors. The quality of rum improves very much by age. 
Rum and water is largely used as a drink on shipboard. 
Great quantities of rum are produced from rectified proof 
spirit, by the addition of coloring and flavoring matter. 

Sago, a kind of starch prepared from various species 
of palms of the genus Sagus, S. Rumphii generall}'' pro- 
ducing the true sago of commerce. It is a small tree, 
not over thirty feet in height. It is a native of the East 
India Archipelago and grows in the lowlands of all the 
islands of that region. Before the tree has arrived at 
maturity the stem consists of a mere sheU about two 



SALERATUS SALMON. 205 

inches thick, while the interior is filled with a great mass 
of spongy pith, becoming gradually absorbed, and ulti- 
mately the stem remains hollow. At the time when the 
pith is fully developed and before it has begun to dimin- 
ish, the tree is feUed and the trunk cut into lengths six or 
seven feet long, which are split to admit of the pith being 
more easily removed. This pith is in a state of coarse 
powder, and is mixed with water in a trough having a 
sieve at one end, the water, loaded with farina, passes 
through the sieve into vessels and is allowed to stand un- 
til the insoluble matter has subsided. The water is then 
strained off and the farina which is left may be dried into 
a meal or moulded into any form desired. Sago as it 
comes to this country is prepared by making it into a 
paste with water and then rubbing it into grains. It is 
said that a single tree will yield from 500 to 600 pounds 
of sago. 

Common sago is insoluble in cold water, but swells and 
forms a jelly when boiled. The Chinese of Malaca pmify 
it so as to give it a pearly lustre, and this is somewhat 
soluble even in cold water. Sago is adulterated by add- 
ing potato starch, but this msiy be detected by the micro- 
scope. Sago forms the principal food of the natives of 
the Moluccas, and from it they distil alcohol. S. laevis 
and S. farinefera are natives of the same island and also 
furnish the sago of commerce. 

Saleratus (see Soda) . 

Salmon, a name applied to several species of fish of 
the genus Salmo, and also to the species of the genus 
Oncorhynchus. The salt water is the natural habitat of 
all these species, where they obtain then- food and rap- 



206 SALMON. 

idly increase in size. It is only towards fall that they 
ascend fresh water streams and do so for the purpose of 
depositing their spawns. JSalmo solar ^ or salmon of our 
eastern coast, is found in the Arctic sea, whence it enters 
the streams of both continents. In the United States it 
is found only in some rivers in Maine. It is found in the 
streams of Eastern Canada from Quebec to the coast of 
Labrador, and the streams are leased by the government 
to private individuals, but so few salmon are taken in this 
region that they scarcely become an article of conmierce. 
Only on our Pacific coast is the capture of salmon follow- 
ed as a commercial pursuit. On the Columbia Eiver, 
Oregon, large numbers of men are engaged in the salmon 
fishery, and it is a source of great profit. The fish are 
taken only in gillnets, and at night, when the water is 
clear, two men with a boat and net will average twelve 
hundred pounds in one night. 

The fish are taken to the factories, where they are ei- 
ther salted or put up in hermetically sealed cans. These 
canned salmon will keep for many j^ears in any climate, 
and find a ready sale at high prices. Manj^ hundred 
thousand cans are put up annually, a large portion of 
which go to England. Salmon are found in great abun- 
dance in the waters of Alaska and considerable quantities 
are packed in barrels and shipped to the Eastern market. 
The salmon of the Pacific coast is Salmo quininat. The 
artificial production of salmon is now being carried on by 
the United States Fish Commission, and numerous streams 
have been stocked with the young fish. The salmon 
ranges in length from two to four feet, and sometimes at- 
tains a weight of a hundred pounds ; from twenty to fifty 



SALSIFY — SALT. 207 

pounds are the ordinary sizes. The flesh of salmon is of 
a reddish hue and is highly esteemed as an article of food. 

Salsify or Oyster Plant. ( Tragopogon porrifoUus) 
a perennial or biennial plant belonging to the order com- 
positae and cultivated for its fleshy roots which are long 
and tapering, and when properly cooked have something 
the flavor of fried oysters, whence one of its common 
names ; it is also boiled or stewed like parsnips or car- 
rots, and is sometimes eaten as a salad, sliced and 
dressed with vinegar, salt and pepper. The plant is cul- 
tivated in our gardens, and is used in the fall and spring. 
It is a native of Europe. 

Sal Soda, (see Soda.) 

Salt. The salt of commerce is a slightly impure chlo- 
ride of sodium, (Na CI) . The impurities differ in the 
salt obtained from different sources both in kind and 
amount, those most commonly found being the chlorides 
and sulphates of lime, magnesia and soda. Salt has been 
known and used from the earhest times ; long before the 
beginning of the Christian era it seems to have been in 
ahnost as common use as at present. Salt is found very 
widely and abundantly distributed in nature, the world's 
supply being drawn from three sources, namely, sea- 
water, rock salt and natural brines. Sea water contains 
about three per cent, of common salt in connection with 
about one per cent, of other mineral matters the most im- 
portant of which are chloride and sulphate of magnesia 
and the sulphates of soda and lime. So weak and im- 
pure a brine cannot be profitably evaporated by artificial 
heat, but b}^ allowing it to flow into shallow reservoirs 
which are then shut off' from the sea, it may be and is 



208 SALT. 

largely evaporated by the sun's heat and large amounts 
of salt are thus obtained. 

This is the chief source of supply in France, Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, Centi-al and South America. In the 
United States but comparatively ver}' httle salt is ob- 
tained fi'om sea water. Deposits of salt in beds in con- 
nection with other geologic fonuations are quite conunon 
throughout various portions of the Earth. Salt found in 
this condition is known as rock salt and is the som'ce of 
a large portion of the salt used in England, Russia and 
many other countries of the world. These beds were un- 
doubtedly foiTued by portions of the sea having become 
cut off from the main body and the water thereof having 
become evaporated has left its entire sahne constituents 
deposited, and where the conditions have been such as 
to preserve them we have the rock-salt beds of the pres- 
ent time. Rock-salt usually exists in large cubical crys- 
tals, and in some cases in such a state of purity as to be 
fitted for use b^^ no fmlher labor than simply removing 
it from the beds. More commonly however, it is con- 
taminated with impurities, various coloring matters fre- 
quently being present which make it of a blue, red or 
3'ellow color. In such cases it is usual to dissolve the 
salt in the mine by flowing in water which is afterward 
pumped out and treated in the same manner as natural 
brines for the production of salt. In this country there 
are large deposits of rock salt in Louisiana which served 
for the ahuost entire supply of the Southern States during 
the Rebellion. 

Natural brines fiu-nish nearly all of the salt manufaet- 
ui'ed in the United States. They are found abundantly 



SALT. 209 

at SjTacuse and Onondaga, New York, in the Saginaw 
Valley, Michigan, at Saltville, Virginia, in Ohio, Nebras- 
ka, and other localities. These brines are undoubtedly 
produced b^^ solution in the earth of deposits of rock-salt, 
the position and extent of the deposit being sometimes 
known, but in other cases only indicated by the presence 
of brines. In some localities the brine flows from the 
earth in the form of natural springs, whilst in others it is 
only obtained by boring artesian wells and pumping from 
them the brine. These brines are treated in somewhat 
different manners, according to the quality of the salt 
which the manufacturer desires to produce. For the pro- 
duction of coarse salt artificial heat is not employed, the 
entire evaporation being conducted by solar heat alone, 
upon account of the well-known fact that in a solution of 
any crystallizable substance the more slowly the crystals 
are formed, and the more entirely at rest is the solution, 
the larger will be the crystals formed. In this country 
the evaporation is conducted in wooden vats supplied with 
wooden covers for excluding rain and to lessen the cool- 
ing of the brine during the night. In order the more ef- 
fectually to remove the impurities of the brine, which con- 
sist principally of sulphate of lime (gj^psum), chlorides 
of calcium and magnesium and carbonate of iron, several 
different vats are used to complete the evaporation, the 
brine being drawn successively from one into the other. 
It is allowed to stand in the first until the carbonate of 
ii'on becomes decomposed, the carbonic acid escaping and 
the iron becoming converted into hydrated sesquioxide, 
in which form it settles to the bottom of the vat as a 
bulky, brown semi-sohd. 



210 SALT. 

The brine is then drawn off into another vat, where it 
remains until crystals of salt begin to form. During this 
time a considerable amount of the sulphate of lime will 
have become separated out and is left behind as the brine 
is now drawn off into still another vat. Here, as the proc- 
ess of evaporation goes on, the salt separates out in large 
cr}^stals, which are removed from time to time until the 
mother hquor reaches a density of about 30° Baume, 
when it is discharged. The cr^'stals, when taken from 
the brine, are washed and placed in the perforated top 
of the vat to drain. 

For the production of common fine salt, large iron pans 
er iron kettles, heated by steam or over a furnace, are 
made use of. In this country cast-iron kettles holding 
about 140 gallons are in most common use. Fifty or six- 
ty of these are set in a double row along two flues, plac- 
ed six or eight feet apaii; and furnished with separate 
fire-places but a single chimne}'. The kettles nearest the 
fire are protected from receiving too much heat, whilst, 
by a high chimney, assisted by blowers, a strong di'aught 
is created, to carry the heat to the kettles farthest awa^'. 
To remove impurities a sheet-kon false bottom provided 
with a bail is placed in each kettle before the brine is in- 
troduced. As soon as the evaporation has proceeded 
so far that salt crj^stals begin to form, these false bot- 
toms are carefully lifted out of the kettles together with 
the gypsum and other imparities which have settled 
upon them. When, as the boihng continues, a sufficient 
quantity of salt has become cr3'stallized out, it is well 
stiiTed for the purpose of washing it in the remaining 
liquid and it is then removed and placed in baskets 



SALT. 211 

wMch are suspended over the kettles to drain. After 
some hours draining the salt is removed to the stove 
rooms where it is dried for two or three weeks, when it 
is fit to be barrelled and sent into market. 

The quahty of both coarse and fine salt depends upon 
the amount and kind of impurities present in the brine, 
and the care exercised in removing them in the process of 
manufacture. Sulphate of calcium, which is usually pres- 
ent in the largest quantity, is much less objectionable 
than the chlorides of calcium and magnesium and the sul- 
phate of magnesium. These latter are present in consid- 
erably larger proportions in the brines of Michigan and 
Ohio than in those of New York, which accounts for the 
difficulty of obtaining a good dair}^ salt from the works in 
the former states. Dairy salt should be entirely free from 
the last named and bitter salts. It is usually obtained 
by selecting an extra pure quality of coarse or fine salt 
and subjecting it to a carefally conducted process of 
washing, after which it is ground to facilitate its solution. 
Ordinary coarse salt is principally used in salting pork 
and beef, whilst common fine salt answers well for ordi- 
nary table use, and great quantities are converted into 
" soda" to be used in the manufacture of soap and glass 
and by the house-keeper in cooking. In England more 
than one half of the salt produced is converted into soda- 
ash. Hydrochloric or muriatic acid, so extensively used 
in the arts, and also chlorine, now used almost exclusive- 
ly in the large bleacheries for bleaching cloths, are made 
by decomposing common salt. Salt is put up for market 
in different ways, Ashton's, Marshall's and other Liver- 
pool brands come in bags, 224 pounds ; New York 



212 SALTPETRE — SARDINES. 

State in barrels and bags, 240 and 280 pounds ; Saginaw 
in barrels, 240 pounds ; cases table salt contain 60 boxes, 
about two pounds each. Salt also comes in small pack- 
ets, put up in sacks, three sizes ; 25 10 pound packets, 
40 6 pounds and 80 3 pounds. The production of salt 
in the United States amounts to about 20,000,000 bushels 
annually, whilst 10,000,000 bushels are annually con- 
sumed. 

Saltpetre, Nitre, the common names of the nitrate 
of potassium (K N O3) an anhydrous, cry staUiz able salt 
found native in beds in Peru, and mixed with the soil, 
and as an efflorescence upon its surface in the East In- 
dies and in lesser quantities in many other parts of the 
world. The principal supply is however obtained from 
Peru and the East Indies. That obtained from Peru is 
sold extensively in the crude state in which it is taken 
from the bed and is known by the misnomer of Chili salt- 
petre. The East Indian article is obtained by leaching 
the soil and evaporating the solution thus obtained from 
which, upon cooling, the saltpetre crystallizes out. The 
crystals are six sided prisms, soluble in less than one 
half their weight of hot water but requiring four times 
their weight of water to produce solution. 

Nitre is one of the essential constituents of gun pow- 
der in the manufacture of which large quantities are con- 
sumed. It is used to some extent as an antiseptic, for 
preserving meats, butter, etc. 

Sardines, {Clupea pilcJiardus) ^ a small fish caught in 
the Mediterranean sea near Sardinia whence the name 
sardine. It is from three to five inches in length and 
large quantities are caught and preserved in oil in smaU 



SAUCE — SEALING WAX. 213 

tin cans, and used as a luxury. It is prepared by being 
dressed, salted, partly dried, and then scalded in hot oil 
and hermetically sealed in tin boxes, with hot salted oil, 
or oil and butter. They are sometimes preserved in red 
wine. The menhaden, a fish abundantly caught near 
Long Island, and formerly used for manure and its oil, 
is now preserved in oil as sardines. Several factories 
are now in operation in New Jersey and also in Norway 
in Europe. The fish are prepared by softening the 
bones by steam and trimming the body to the proper 
size. 

Sauce. A mixture or composition of vegetables, 
meats and spices, along with vinegar or wine, and used 
as a relish to other food. The English sauces have a 
fine reputation and are perhaps unequaled. 

Sauerkraut, an article of food prepared from the cab- 
bage. The cabbages are finely sliced and pounded into a 
cask or barrel along with salt, pepper corns, caraway or 
anise seed, and subjected to a heavy pressure. It is then 
allowed to stand in a warm place for several days when 
fermentation takes place and during this process it gives 
off a very disagreeable, fetid, acid odor. Strong brine is 
then added, and it is then set away for use. It is fresh- 
ened before using and may be boiled, fried or eaten cold. 
It requires about two hours to complete its cooking. The 
dish is of German origin. 

Sealing Wax. Red sealing wax is made by carefully 
forming a mixture of shellac, Venice turpentine, Peru bal- 
sam, vermilion and sulphate of lime. In the cheaper 
kinds of sealing wax red lead is substituted for vermiUon, 
and there is a large addition of common rosin, which 



214 SEA-MOSS FAHINE SHAD. 

causes the wax to run into thin drops when fused. Black 
sealing wax is made of shellac, Venice tui'pentine, and 
colored mth ivory black. The ancient sealing wax was 
a mixtui'e of beeswax and turpentine, with the addition 
of some coloring matter. 

Sea-moss Farine, Iceland Moss, Lichenine, a sub- 
stance very closely resembling starch and having the 
same chemical composition. It is obtained from several 
varieties of lichens especially the reindeer moss, Iceland 
moss, and one or two others found growing in the ex- 
treme northern portions of both continents. Iceland 
moss and reindeer moss consist almost entirely of lich- 
enine, which is prepared from them by simply soaking 
and washing repeatedl}' in cold water until all taste is 
removed, the washed moss being then dissolved in boil- 
ing water, strained and evaporated ; the hcheniue is ob- 
tained as a hard, brittle moss which is sold in our mar- 
kets under a variety of names and used in making pud- 
dings and pastry. 

Semolina, a name applied to the centi-al part of the 
gi'ain of wheat which is not reduced to powder in the pro- 
cess of giinding by stones, and is produced from the 
grains of wheat of very sunny climes, as Spain, Odessa 
and the south of Italy, where the gTain becomes very dry 
and hard. It is used for the making of puddings and is 
very nutritious. A similar preparation is made from 
maize and millet but the flavor is inferior. 

Shad a name apphed to fish belonging to the family 
Clupeidse. The shad are inhabitants of the northern 
hemisphere, and live in the sea dming the gTcater por- 
tion of the year, but ascend the rivers in the spring for 



SHADINE SHOT. 215 

the purpose of depositing their spawn. The European spe- 
cies of shad are not considered as good for food as those 
of America and Asia. The capture of this fish forms a 
large industry, and in the early spring they are taken by 
fixed seines or nets. While in fresh water the fish eat 
little or nothing ; in the sea their food consists of small 
crustaceans. Through the exertions of the United States 
Fish Commission the rivers connected with the gulf, and 
on the Pacific slopes have been stocked with young shad 
artificially hatched. 

Sliadine, (Alosa sadina) a small spotted shad not ov- 
er a foot in length, caught to some extent ofl" the New 
York and New Jersey coasts. It appears in our mar- 
kets put up in oil as a substitute for sardines. 

Shot, are small globular masses of lead used for killing 
birds and other small game. Lead shot are manfactured 
from a compound of lead and arsenic. The arsenic is 
added to the lead to render it more soft and ductile, by 
which it more readily assumes the globular form when 
subjected to the process of shot-making. When a quan- 
tity of lead is melted in the pot, a cn"cle of ashes or pow- 
dered charcoal is laid around the edge of the metal, and 
the arsenical compound, wrapped in coarse paper, is intro- 
duced into the centre by means of a wire basket, and 
stirred in. The pot is then closely covered and left for 
several hours, during which time the arsenic is decompos- 
ed, the greater part uniting with the lead. The mixture 
is then tested b}^ dropping some through a colander into 
water ; if the lead assumes a lenticular form tlie arsenic 
is in excess ; if they are flattened on one side, hollowed 
or elongated, too little arsenic was used. 



216 SHOT. 

After the mixture has been experimented upon until it 
is of the required consistence, it is run into bars, which 
are taken to the top of the shot tower, where it is again 
melted and poured through the colander. These colan- 
ders are either hollow, hemispherical iron dishes or rec- 
tangular iron sheets, perforated with holes of a uniform 
size, made perfectly smooth and exact. Each size of 
shot requires a special temperature of the lead when 
poured. The holes vary in size from one fiftieth to one 
three hundred and sixtieth of an inch, but the shot are of 
larger dimensions than the holes . When the lead is poured 
through the colanders, the particles are allowed to faU to 
the base of the tower, and in this falling they assume the 
globular form, the same as does falling rain. By the time 
they reach the bottom they^are sufficiently hardened to 
fall into the baisin of water placed to receive them, with- 
out thus being injured. Large sized shot require a greater 
hei^t than small, one hundred feet being sufficient for 
the latter while the former require one hundred and fifty. 

After the shot are taken from the water they are dried 
and assorted, according to size, b}^ means of a revolving 
copper cylinder slightly inchned, perforated with holes, 
which increase in size to the lower end. The imperfect 
shot are separated b}^ being allowed to run down an in- 
clined plane so arranged that the truly spherical run down 
the middle, while the imperfect work off to one side. The 
shot are polished by being left in a rotating cylinder with 
powdered graphite. Shot are made without the use of a 
tower by having the lead placed on a swiftl}^ revolving 
table, which throws the particles thi'ough a perforated 
cylinder of copper against a hnen screen so placed as to 



SHRIMP — SOAP . 217 

intercept them. Another method is with a low elevator, 
and forcing upward a powerful current of air, which has 
the same effect as a long continued fall. The different 
sized shot are distinguished by names and letters. The 
Chicago Shot Tower Co. have the following grades : the 
smallest size is No. 12 ; as the size increases they are 
known as Nos. 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, B, BB, 
BBB, 0, 00, 000. Of buckshot the largest is 
No. 1. — 50 to the pound. 

2._ 70 '' " 

3._ 90 '' i' 

4.-110 " '' 

5._125 '' " 

6.— 140 "• '' 

7._215 " *« 

8.— 260 " " 
Shrimp, a name applied to a large number of small 
crustaceans, properly should mean Grangon vulgaris^ of 
Europe, which is extensively caught for food. The 
common shrimp of the United States is principally used 
for fish bait. 

Snuff. (See tobacco.) 

Soap, a combination of the fatty acids with some me- 
tallic base usually with soda or potassa. Fats and true 
oils consist of a union of several organic acids, chiefly 
palmitic, oleic, and stearic, with a peculiar base called 
glycerine. When treated with alkaline hydrates, or Ij^e, 
the fats are decomposed, the potash or soda of the lye 
uniting with the fat acids forming soap, whilst gl3xerine 
is at the same time set free. 

Various metallic oxids such as lime, magnesia, zinc 



218 SOAP. 

and lead oxides will in the same manner decompose fats 
with the formation of soap but not of a kind valuable for 
cleansing purposes, upon account of being insoluble in 
water. The curdy solid which forms when toilet soap is 
used in hard water is an insoluble hme soap formed by 
the decomposition of the toilet soap by lime in the wa- 
ter. Commercial soaps are now made almost entu-ely 
with a soda base upon account of the great cheapness of 
soda as compared with potassa. Soda soaps are in general 
hard soaps, whilst potash soaps are soft soaps. The 
latter are still made to a considerable extent in the 
household economy-, the refuse fats from the kitchen be- 
ing emplo^xd, while the Ij^e is furnished by the leaching 
of wood ashes. The grease and lye are simply boiled 
together until complete saponification takes place. The 
soft soap thus formed is by no means a pure soap but 
contains all of the gljxerine produced by the decomposi- 
tion of the fats together with a considerable excess of 
lye and a large amount of water, usually from 40 to 50 
per cent. It forms a thick yellow like mass possessing 
very strong detergent properties owing to the presence 
of free alkah and is very useful for many of the coarser 
uses to which soap is applied such as scouring wool and 
yarn, or the cleansing of any article in which is a large 
amount of oil or grease. 

For the production of a good quaUty of hard soap a 
more extended operation is required together with more 
care and skill. The 13'e emploj^ed in the commercial 
manufacture is prejDared by adding slacked lime to soda- 
ash^ which is the carbonate of soda ; the lime uniting 
with the carbonic acid forms carbonate of lime and there 



SOAP. 219 

is left a solution of caustic soda or lye. The fats or oils 
made use of may be of any kind either animal or vegeta- 
ble but should be clean and sweet. The process of sa- 
ponification is conducted in large iron pans capable of 
holding twenty or thirty tons of soap and which are 
heated either by steam or by being set over furnaces. 

A quantity of fat is first placed in the pan and to it is 
added a quantity of decidedly weak lye, these being boiled 
together form, after a little time, a uniform milky emul- 
sion in which no oil globules can be detected and which 
has no alkahne reaction, when a quantity of stronger lye 
is added and the boiling is continued until a strong alka- 
line reaction is obtained, when more fat is added and the 
process continued with the addition of continually strong- 
er lye and more fat with frequently a quantity of rosin 
until the pan is filled, care being taken that in the end a 
sufficient quantity of alkah shall be added to saponify 
all of the fat and yet not be in excess. 

Rosin is added simply as an adulterant, it becoming in 
a manner saponified and adding cheaply to the quantity 
of soap produced. When the pan has become filled and 
the saponification is complete, salt is added to induce the 
separation of the soap from the spent lye and glycerine 
which has been set free and the whole is allowed to stand 
and cool when the soap will float as a curdy mass upon 
the mother liquor which is then drawn off and usually 
thrown away, it not being profitable to extract from it 
the gl3'cerine which it contains, that article being more 
cheaply obtained from other processes. 

The soap after removal from the mother liquor is fre- 
quently again subjected to a continuation of the boiling 



220 SOAP. 

process with the addition of more lye and fats and once 
more separated by the use of salt from the spent lye, 
after which it is removed and allowed to become thor- 
oughly cold and sohd when it is ready to be cut up and 
boxed for market. This is in a generalway the method 
emploj^ed in the manufacture of the cheaper varieties of 
hard soap in large estabhshments. For the preparation 
of particular varieties of soap the process is modified and 
for choice soaps particularly pure oils are employed. 

Ordinary hard soap contains its materials in about the 
following proportions. 

Fat acids 61.0 per cent. 

Soda 6.2 per cent. 

Water 32.8 per cent. 



100.0 

Castile soap is made in southern Europe from a mix- 
ture of olive and rape seed oils. It is of well known ex- 
cellent quahty, but an imitation of much poorer quality, 
made in England, is very largely sold as Castile. The 
spurious may generally be detected by the coloring mat- 
ter being in streaks instead of giving the peculiar mot- 
tled appearance of the genuine. Genuine Castile soap 
has been found to contain of fat acids 76.5 per cent, of 
soda 9 per cent, and of water 14.5 per cent. Soap made 
from cocoanut oil is remarkably hard and ma}^ contain a 
great amount of water, even as much as 75 per cent, 
without becoming soft. 

It is not readily decomposed by' weak salt water and is 
consequently used for washing in sea water and is known 
as marine soap. Toilet soaps are made from very pure and 



SODA. 221 

sweet oils the saponification being conducted without the 
aid of heat and the soap perfumed by the addition of 
essential oils. Silicated soap is made by the addition 
of sand or finely powdered pumice stone to ordinary 
hard soap. 

The most important test of the quality of soap is to 
determine the amount of water it contains not in chem- 
ical combination. This is easily learned by cutting the 
soap in shavings and drying for some time at a tempera- 
ture of 212° F. The loss of weight in good, white hard 
soap should not exceed 20 per cent. 

Soap is readily soluble in alcohol and the solution 
mixed with camphor and oil of rosemary is known as 
opodeldoc. 

Soda, a name applied somewhat indiscriminately to So- 
die hydrate or caustic soda (Nag Hg O2 ) ; to Neutral car- 
bonate of soda (Na2 C O3 10 H2 O) also called Sal soda 
and washing soda ; and also to Bicarbonate of soda(Na2 
H2 C2 Og) known as cooking soda. These are all ob- 
tained commercially from common salt by the process in- 
vented by M. Leblanc. By this process common salt 
(chloride of sodium) is converted into the neutral car- 
bonate and from this are prepared caustic soda and sodi- 
um bicarbonate. Previous to Leblanc's discovery soda 
was obtained entirely from the ash of sea weeds or kelp. 
During the French revolution this supply was cut off 
from that country and as a result the government was in- 
duced to offer a large sum as a reward for a practical 
method of obtaining the much needed material from some 
other source. This led to Leblanc's famous discoveiy 



222 SODA. 

wMch has been denominated the greatest of the appli- 
cations of chemistiy to the useful arts. 

The discovery was made public in 1794 and in the 
more than three quarters of a centurj^, which has since 
elapsed, no important modification has been made in the 
process. Common salt is first decomposed by sulphur- 
ic acid, the products of the decomposition being sulphate 
of soda and chlorhydric acid. The acid escapes from the 
retorts as a gas, and is condensed in towers filled with 
coke over which water is kept flowing. The sulphate of 
soda is removed and 100 parts of it is mixed with 100 
parts of chloride of calcium and 55 parts of charcoal, 
and the mixture is roasted in a reverberatory furnace, by 
which means it is converted chiefly into carbonate of so- 
da and sulphide of calcium, but also contains in greater 
or less proportions sulphate of calcium, carbonate of cal- 
cium, undecomposed salt and sulphate of soda together 
with a quantity of charcoal. In this condition it is known 
as black ash or ball soda, and is used in the manufacture 
of soap. 

To obtain the carbonate in a purer form the black ash 
is thoroughly lixiviated with water and the solution, or 
lye, thus obtained is evaporated to dryness leaving a sol- 
id residue consisting of carbonate of soda, caustic soda, 
and small quantities of sulphate of soda. This is then 
calcined at a moderate heat in connection with sawdust 
or fine coal, by which means all traces of sulphur are ex- 
pelled and caustic soda is converted into carbonate of so- 
da. The material as now removed from the fiu'nace is 
known as /Soda Ash, and is used in the manufacture of 
glass, and for the preparation of caustic soda and bicar- 



SORREL — SPRAT. 223 

bonate of soda. By being still further purified it is obtained 
in transparent crystals and sold as Sal-soda. Bicarbon- 
ate of soda is manufactured by forcing a stream of car- 
bonic acid gas through a saturated solution of neutral 
carbonate. It readily gives up a half or all of its carbon- 
ic acid when treated with other acids, and is upon this 
account used for aerating biscuits, cake, etc. In this 
case the carbonic acid is set free in the dough, when heat- 
ed, by the lactic acid of the sour milk, or by the cream 
of tartar or other acid substance which may be employed. 
The articles now sold as saleratus and soda are practical- 
ly the same thing, both consisting of a somewhat impure 
bicarbonate of soda. Concentrated lye is a strong solu- 
tion of caustic soda and carbonate of soda. 

Sorrel, (Bumex acetosa) a well known perennial plant 
cultivated to some extent in this country. It is cultiva- 
ted for its acid leaves, and used in soups and sauces, 
mostly by the Germans and French. In the French 
markets it is nearly as abundant as the spinach is in ours, 
and is commended as a wholesome vegetable. 

Spinach, (Spinada oleracea), an old world plant, 
largely cultivated in our gardens as a pot herb. It is of 
eas}^ culture and may be had fit for use the entire sea- 
son. For spring use it is sown in the fall and slightly 
covered to protect it during the winter. The root is an- 
nual, stem eighteen inches to two feet high and the leaves 
two to four inches long tapering to a petiole one, three 
and four inches in length. The varieties in use are the 
Round, Prickly and New Zealand Spinach. 

Sprat, (Harengulus sprattus) a small herring of the 
European Seas. The sprat is about six inclies in length 



224 SQUASH STARGB. 

and its habits are similar to those of the herrings. It is 
eaten fresh, salted, dried or spiced, but is generally 
used by the poorer classes. The French preserve great 
quantities of small sprats and sell them for sardines. 

Squash, {Cucurbita pepo and C. maxima) vegetables 
belonging to the gourd family and of great importance 
as an article of food. They are of various sizes, forms, 
colors and qualities. Being of tropical origin their growth 
is consummated in the summer months, and jet the winter 
varieties may be kept till May. The}^ are rapid growers 
and are raised with little trouble ; care should be taken 
to keep them away from the pumpldn as they readily 
mix and form a worthless hybrid. Squash are used ei- 
ther stewed or baked, and the winter squash makes ex- 
cellent pies. Baked, it is but little inferior to the sweet 
potato. Among the summer varieties in cultivation are 
Yellow and White Bush Scalloped, Summer Crook Neck 
and Boston Marrow. For winter the Hubbard and Mar- 
blehead are both excellent varieties. The native coun- 
try of the squash is unknown. 

Starch, a white, granular substance obtained from the 
vegetable world in which it is found very widely distrib- 
uted, occurring in some part of nearly eyevj known plant, 
whilst in many it occurs in abundant dep.osits, in stallis, 
thickened fleshy leaves, seeds, roots, tubers, etc. Most 
of the grains as wheat, rice, and corn contain about 60 
per cent, of starch, and 15 percent, of water the remain- 
ing 25 per cent, consisting of gum, gluten, fibrine, etc. 
Peas and beans contain about 40 per cent, of starch and 
15 per cent, of water. Potatoes, starch, 21 per cent, 
water, 75 per cent. 



STARCH. 225 

Starch for domestic use has for many years been man- 
ufactured in large quantities from the potato. When 
used for this purpose the potatoes are first thoroughly 
washed, and when clean are passed through a grating 
machine by which they are reduced to a fine pulp and de- 
livered upon an endless belt which distributes the pulp 
evenly over fine wire or hair sieves where it is constantly 
washed by having numerous fine streams of water direct- 
ed upon it. The starch is thus washed out, and passes 
through the sieve with the water, giving it a milk like col- 
or and consistency whilst the fibrous portion of the pota- 
to amounting to only about three or four per cent, is left 
upon the sieves. The milky liquid is left to stand sev- 
eral hours, when the starch will have all settled to the 
bottom and the clear supernatant water is drawn off by 
means of a siphon. The starch is then removed and re- 
peatedly washed with clear, cold water, and passed 
through very fine hair or silk sieves until the last traces of 
fibrous matter are removed, when, being again allowed to 
settle and the clear water drawn off, the semi-liquid mass 
remaining is removed and dried in dessicating chambers. 

Wheat starch has been prepared and used in large 
quantities in European countries. The wheat for the 
purpose is first softened by wetting and is then submitted 
to crushing, rolling and pressing with a continual supply 
of water until the water ceases to be milky as it flows 
from it. The milky water contains the starch together 
with the gluten of the wheat. A part of the gluten re- 
mains in solution in the water after the starch has settled 
to the bottom and being allowed to stand becomes sour, 
when the acid liquid will dissolve considerably more of 



226 STAKCH. 

the gluten. By repeatedly washing with water and al- 
lowing to sour and settle, and then drawing off the clear 
liquid the gluten is at length completely removed : after 
which the further treatment of the starch is the same as 
that from the potato. 

Corn starch prepared from Indian com has in quite re- 
cent years come into quite common use in this country 
both for laundry use and for the preparation of articles 
of food for the table. The manufacture was first under- 
taken in this country in 1842 by Thos. Kingsford for 
whom a large factory was built at Oswego, N. Y., by a 
stock company, in 1848. The manufactui-e has proved 
so successful that large additions to the factory have 
from time to time been made until it now has a capacity 
for consuming nearl}- 1,000,000 bushels of corn, and pro- 
ducing upward of 20,000,000 pounds of starch annually." 
Another factory established in 1858 at Glen Cove, Long 
Island, by Messrs. Dur^^ea has nearly equal capacity. 
This starch from its excellent quahty and cheap price has 
nearly replaced all other kinds, has entirely stopped the 
importation of foreign brands and is itself now largely 
exported. It is manufactured by fii'st treating the corn 
with water in which is a quantity of caustic soda or hy- 
drochloric acid until the gluten has become dissolved, af- 
ter which it is crushed, washed upon sieves, and dried 
much as in the preceding processes. 

The method of dissolving out the gluten by acid or al- 
kalies before crushing the grain, instead of separating it 
out b}^ the process of souring as before described is known 
as the new or c^emz'caZ process of manufacture. A de- 
cidedly better quahty of starch is obtained in this way. 



STARCH POLISH STRAWBERRY. 227 

Rice starch is manufactured in considerable quantities in 
Europe. The process does not differ in any important 
particular from those already described. 

Starch for food is prepared from the Sago-palm, Arrow 
root, and Manioc, which will be found described under 
their respective names. 

Starcll Polisli, an article used in the laundry for giv- 
ing a polish to starched goods. Starch polish is made 
from the following ingredients : starch, white castile soap, 
paraffine, borax and white wax. Another patented pol- 
ish is made from white wax, spermaceti, castor oil, mut- 
ton tallow, borax, salt, gum arable and isinglass. 

StOYe Polish. A preparation used for the blacking 
of stoves. It is generally prepared from graphite or 
black lead. It is put up in the form of cakes or of a fine 
powder. 

Strawberry, the fruit of plants of the genus Frag aria 
of the Rose family. The whole plant is hairy, with per- 
ennial root, leaves often green through the winter : the 
stem is short, but the crown of the root sends out sever- 
al prostrate radicating runners from one to two feet long. 
The flowers are in cjTues, 3 to 8 or 9 to 15 flowered ; 
petals are white. The receptacle in the strawberry be- 
comes much enlarged and fleshy and is generally called 
the fruit, but the true fruit is the seeds which adhere to 
this receptacle. The species are very numerous and im- 
prove or deteriorate very rapidly under cultivation. The 
most widely known species are the F. Vesca or Alpine, 
known in England as the wood-straw^berr3^ and the F. 
Vioyiniana, or common wild strawbeny of the United 
States. The best market varieties grown in the United 



22S STURGEON — SUGAE. 

States are the " "Wilson's Albany," " Hovej^s Seedling," 
Agriculturist and " Monarch of the West." New Jersey 
and Delaware largely supply the eastern markets, while 
Central Illinois and the Lake Shore region of Western 
Michigan supply the markets of the west. 

Sturgeon, the common name applied to the fish of the 
genus Acipenser. They are a singular looking fish and 
have large bony plates arranged in longitudinal rows, the 
mouth under the snout, without teeth and very protrac- 
tile and the lobes of the tail unequal. They inhabit 
lakes and the sea, and ascend the rivers of many coun- 
tries. The sharp nosed sturgeon of the Atlantic coast 
ofi North America is from four to eight feet long. The 
Lake sturgeon of the Great Lakes is from thi-ee to six 
feet long and of a ruddy hue. The Great sturgeon of 
Europe reaches a length of sixteen feet, and a weight of 
from 1500 to 2000 pounds. Sturgeon are largely caught 
in the Hudson river and the streams flowing into the 
Great Lakes. The flesh is of a reddish tinge and is 
highly esteemed by some people ; it is said large quanti- 
ties are cured and smoked and sold for the genuine 
halibut. A large industry in connection with the stur- 
geon is the manufacture of their roe into caviare which 
is sent to the Russian markets. Isinglass is made firom 
their air bladders and an oil may also be manufactured 
from the fish. 

Succotash, a name given to green maize and beans 
boiled together. The name and dish are of Indian origin. 
Succotash is largely canned and in this form is quite an 
article of commerce. 

Sugar, is a name apphed to a great number of sub- 



SUGAR. 229 

stances somewhat closely resembling each other in phy- 
sical properties and chemical composition, but also dif- 
fering in many particulars. Chemically all are com- 
pounds of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in but shghtly 
vaiying proportions. Physically they all agree in pos- 
sessing a sweet taste, are soluble in water, forming more 
or less viscid liquids, and most are crystallizable. Sugars 
exist in a great variety of vegetable juices and in a few 
animal secretions, as in milk. The sugars of commerce 
are but of two kinds. (1) Sucrose (C12H22O11) usually 
known from its most abundant source as cane sugar 
although including the principal part of the sugar made 
from the cane, the beet, the maple, and the palm. (2) 
Dextrose or ordinary glucose (CeHiaOg) called also grape 
sugar, starch sugar, and fruit sugar which is found in 
most kinds of fruits, and is readily formed by the action 
of dilute acids upon starch, of strong sulphuric or mu- 
riatic acid upon cellulose or woody fibre, or by dilute 
acids, 3' east or other ferments upon cane sugar. It thus 
appears that it may be made from almost anything of 
vegetable origin, for all contain either starch or woody 
fibre ; thus any kind of grain, roots, wood, paper, cotton 
rags, etc, may serve as a source from which to obtain 
this sugar. It is manufactured in large quantities from 
potatoes and corn and used as an adulterant for sugar 
house sjTups, also for confectionery and to mix with 
grape juice to be made into wine. There were in 1873 
fifty-one factories in Germany engaged in the manufac- 
ture of grape sugar from the potato, producing nearl}' 
60,000,000 pounds of sugar and syrup annually. The 
process consists ^n simply boihng the potato starch in di- 



230 SUGAK. 

lute acids. A quantity of water is first brought to boil- 
ing when a small quantity of acid is added to it and 
starch diluted with water to about the consistency of 
milk is run into it, and the boiling continued until the 
conversion of starch is complete when the excess of acid 
is neutralized by the addition of carbonate of lime and 
the clear liquid is drawn off from the sulphate of lime 
formed, after which it is evaporated to form syrup or su- 
gar. Grape sugar is much less soluble in water than 
cane sugar and possesses much less sweetening power, 
it requiring two and a half to three pounds of grape su- 
gar to produce as great sweetening effect as one pound 
of cane sugar. It is much less readily crj^stallizable than 
cane sugar, and as it is almost always associated with 
and is easily converted into levulose which is entirely un- 
crystaUizable, and which interferes with the crystallization 
of other sugars with which it is mixed, it is commonly 
met with in an uncrystaUized form, as in sorghum sjTup, 
in molasses from sugar refineries, etc. 

Cane sugar is produced in quantity from the juice of 
the sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum,) from the juice 
of the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), from the sap of the 
sugar maple (Acer saccharinum) , and from the juice of 
several species of palm trees. Sugar was first intro- 
duced into England in the fourteenth century and was 
then imported from the Indies and was consequently so 
expensive as to be used only as a luxurj^ by the wealthy. 

It seems however to have been known to the ancients 
before the beginning of the Christian era, but never to 
have been made or used by them in any considerable 
quantities, and until quite modern 4imes honey has 



SUGAR. 231 

served the people of the world their only saccharine food. 
Pre^dous to the discovery of America most of the sugar 
consumed in Europe was produced in the Canaries, Ma- 
deira, and Sicity, but the amount was exceedingl}^ small as 
compared with the present consumption of the article. 

The cultivation of sugar cane was introduced into the 
West India islands and the adjacent main land soon after 
their discovery, and so early as 1520 the industry had 
attained to a very considerable degree of importance. 
The common sugar cane is probabl}' a native of South 
Eastern Asia but it is not known to now exist an^^where 
in a wild state. 

It belongs to the grass family being somewhat closely 
related to Indian corn ; it has a solid jointed stem one 
and a half to two and a half inches in diameter, and 
growing to a height of from sixteen to eighteen feet; 
leaves are borne along the stem at the joints, and flowers 
are borne in a long panicle at the top, though it is not 
usually allowed to flower when cultivated for its juice. 
It is cultivated very generally throughout the world in 
tropical and sub tropical climates, being found to flourish 
best where the average temperature is from 75° to 78° F. 
but is grown in much cooler climates even where the av- 
erage temperature is as low as 60 or 65° F. It is exten- 
sively grown in Louisiana, the West Indies, Central 
America and along the entire coast of northern South 
America ; it is scarcely at all grown in Southern Europe 
but throughout large portions of Asia and the East In- 
dies it is grown extensively. As the seed rarely matures 
the plant is propagated by cuttings which are made from 
the tops of smaller and shorter stems cut into lengths 



232 SUGAR. 

of 15 to 20 inches, which are set in the ground in rows 
about five feet apart, usually in September or October, 
and the stems growing from them reach sufficient matur- 
ity to be gathered in the earl}^ part of the second season, 
when they are cut as close to the ground as possible, the 
sugar being more abundant in the lower part of the stem 
than the upper. 

The root which is left will again sprout and produce a 
second crop of stems at the end of about two years, and 
will thus continue to sprout after being cut and will fur- 
nish good crops for a considerable number of years some- 
times as many as twenty, the length of time during 
which the roots will prove prolific depending upon the 
favorableness of the chmate and soil. The stems after 
being cut are trimmed of their leaves and tops and car- 
ried to the mill. The mill now in almost universal use 
for the extraction of the juice consists of three horizontal 
iron rollers one being placed above the other two ; the 
cane is fed to the mill between the upper roll and one of 
the lower ones, and from these passes between the upper 
and the other lower roll. 

The mill is usually turned b}^ steam power and ex- 
tracts by pressure the juice from the canes which runs 
down from the rolls into a sort of pan fi'om which it is 
conveyed by spouts to reservoirs. The stems contain 
about 18 per cent of sugar, of which nearly one half is 
left in them after pressure. The pressed stems are 
known as bagasse and are dried and used as fuel. The 
juice as obtained from the mill is a j'ellowish gTeen liquid 
having a specific gra\ity of from 1.07 to 1.09 and usually 
contains from 18 to 20 per cent, of sugar, together with 



SUGAR. 233 

a small quantity of albumen and fragments of cane and 
other impurities. Owing to the presence of these last 
the juice is very liable to ferment if allowed to stand, 
sometimes even for a few minutes. 

To remove these matters and prevent fermentation the 
juice is at once passed from the mill through strainers 
and into iron or copper kettles holding several hundred 
gallons, where it is raised to a temperature of from 100° 
to 150^, when there is added to it a quantity of slacked 
lime after which it is brought nearly to the boiling point. 
The albumen is coagulated by the heat, and rises, with 
other impurities, to the surface, as a dense scum, which is 
carefully removed, after which the juice is ready for evap- 
oration. 

The evaporation is conducted in various ways, some- 
times entirely in open vessels with the use of either steam 
or direct furnace heat, sometimes partly in open vessels 
and the process finished in vacuum pans, sometimes en- 
tirely in vacuum pans, and at others various ingenious 
evaporaters are used, by some of which a current of heated 
air is blown through the juice, and by others an especial- 
ly large surface of the liquid is exposed to the heat. One 
of the more conmion methods is to first boil the juice in 
large iron or copper vessels, which allows of the juice be- 
ing frequently skimmed, which cannot be done if the 
juice is at once placed in the vacuum pan. The evapo- 
ration here is not usually carried to a great degree of 
condensation before the juice is removed to the vacuum 
pan. This consists of a large, closed copper or iron boil- 
er furnished with an air pump, by which a partial vacuum 
is produced inside and with a condenser to condense the 



234 SUGAR. 

steam which escapes from the boiling liquid. The ad- 
vantage in the use of the vacuum pan is that the boihng 
can be conducted at a much lower temperature, and thus 
the conversion of cane into grape sugar, which takes place 
at high temperatures, is prevented, and, besides, the quahty 
of the cane sugar itself is better when it has not been 
over heated. 

The syrup in open pans, before becoming evaporated to 
sugar, boils at a temperature of between 230° and 240° F., 
whilst the evaporation can be completed in the vacuum 
pan at as low a temperature as 130°, although to obtain a 
coarse grain a temperature of 170° to 180° is usually em- 
ployed. The s^Tup, when suflSciently concentrated, was 
formerly and is still on many plantations run out into 
coolers, where it was allowed to become cold and hard, 
whem it was dug out and filled into hogsheads having 
holes bored in their bottoms through which the molasses 
drained off, and the sugar, when thoroughly drained, was 
sent into market as muscovado, and the drainage from 
the hogsheads was sold as West India or New Orleans 
molasses. Another class of sugar known as clayed sugar 
was also largely produced in former times. The partially 
solidified sugar was removed from the coolers and placed 
in conical moulds, having an opening at the smaller end 
through which the molasses was allowed to drain away. 
After the molasses ceased to run from the moulds, a 
quantity of wet clay was placed upon the top of the sug- 
ar, from which the water would slowl}" trickle down, and 
remove by a process of slow washing more of the uncr^'s- 
tallizable molasses together with coloring matter and im- 



SUGAR. 235 

purities, leaving the sugar much purer and whiter than 
muscovado. 

The uncrystallizable molasses is now however removed 
entirety by centrifugal force. - The machine for the pur- 
pose consists essentiall}' of a cjhndrical box having its 
sides perforated with small holes, and being supported 
upon a horizontal shaft about which it is made to revolve 
at a speed of from 1200 to 1500 revolutions per minute. 
The sugar from the coolers being placed in the box is 
thrown by its revolution against its sides, and the molas- 
ses by the centrifugal action is rapidly forced through the 
perforated sides and accumulates in a second cylinder 
which encloses the revolving one. In this way the dry- 
ing of the sugar which used to take days or even weeks 
is now more effectually accomplished in a very few min- 
utes. The molasses from the centrifugal machine con- 
tains but little cane sugar and is sent into market with- 
out further treatment. 

The raw sugar after the molasses is extracted is not 
as formerly sent into market as muscovado, clayed sugar, 
etc., but is instead sent to the large sugar refineries. 
These with the introduction of the new processes require 
the combination of large amounts of capital involving as 
they do the use of very expensive machinery and exten- 
sive buildings. Their number is consequent^ small, 
there being less than three hundred in the world but some 
of them have a capacity of 1,000,000 pounds of raw sug- 
ar daily. 

The raw sugar as received from the plantations is first 
mixed with about 30 per cent, of water, and melted in 
iron vessels heated by steam, and is then pumped into cis- 



236 SUGAR. 

terns situated upon the upper floor of the refining house. 
From these cisterns it is drawn off into large iron vessels 
furnished with steam coils and known as " blow ups." 
In these it is diluted and heated to about 180° F. Lime 
and blood are generally added to clarify the solution. 
The albumen of the blood coagulates and rises as a dense 
scum entangling with it much of other impurities. The 
scum is carefully removed and the solution brought as 
nearly as possible to a density of 28° Baum^ when it is 
run hot into bag filters, which consist of a number of 
bags of cotton cloth about two feet in length, wound with 
twine, and supported in iron boxes containing two or 
three hundi'ed bags each. After having filtered through 
these bags, the solution is next convej-ed to the bone 
black filters. 

The use of bone black in the refining of sugar is one 
of the most important discoveries in the whole process 
of sugar manufacture, and, together with vacuum pans 
and centrifugal machines, has revolutionized the entire 
industry, and made the production of refined sugar pos- 
sible. Bone black is the charcoal obtained by bm'ning 
bones in retorts ; it consists chiefly (75 to 80 per cent.) 
of phosphate of lime, together with 6 to 12 per cent, of 
carbon and about the same amount of carbonate of lime, 
with several others salts in small proportion. Its action 
was first supposed to be valuable only in remo^dng col- 
oring matters from the sugar solution, but it has since 
been found that the removal of other impurities which the 
bone black effects is of even greater importance. 

It removes besides colormg matters a variety of nitro- 
genous bodies, such as albumen, gluten, legumine and also 



SUGAR. 237 

dextrine and grnnmy substances and salts of soda, po- 
tassa and lime. These impurities when present tend to 
convert cane sugar into grape sugar and to a still greater 
degree prevent the crystallization of the sugar ; thus large- 
ly decreasing the product of cry stalliz able sugar and add- 
ing to the less valuable molasses. 

Bone black filters consist of large, upright, iron cylin- 
ders furnished with perforated false bottoms, covered 
with cloth, placed near the lower end, and above which 
they are filled with coarse bone black to near the top, 
where is a pipe for the introduction of the sugar solution. 
They usuall}^ have closed tops so that the filtration may 
be conducted under pressure. The filter is frequently 
thirty feet in height and from five to ten feet in diameter. 
After the filter is charged with fresh bone black the so- 
lution first passed through is sufficiently purified, but the 
black soon becomes contaminated and removes the im- 
purities much less completely. The solution running from 
the filter after a short time is consequent!}^ raised and 
passed through a second one for complete purification. 
When the bone black becomes so much contaminated as 
no longer to efiectually perform its work it is removed 
from the filter, carefully washed and again heated to 
redness in retorts, when it may again be used as at 
first. 

The solution, after being purified by filtration, is next 
conveyed to vacuum pans where, at a temperature of from 
130° to 150° F., it is evaporated until becoming suffii- 
ciently concentrated that when removed and cooled it will 
at once set into sohd sugar. It is then drawn from the 
vacuum pan into agitators and from these into moulds. 



238 SUGAR. 

The moulds are cone shaped and have a small opening at 
the small end, which is closed by a plug when the hot 
semi-solid sugar is run into them, but the sugar soon be- 
coming cold and hard, the plugs are removed and the 
cones are set in iron pots to drain. When the mother 
liquor, called first greens^ has ceased to run from the 
moulds, the top of the loaf is cut smooth and a quantity 
of pui'e solution of sugar, luMte liquor^ is poured over it, 
which washes out the last traces of mother liquor and 
leaves the loaves perfectly white. When it has entirely 
ceased to di-ain, the loaf is removed from the mould and 
the damp tip is broken off. The subsequent treatment 
depends upon the condition in which it is to be marketed ; 
if in loaves, they are first placed in rubber sockets con- 
nected with an air pump and by exhaustion the last par- 
ticles of liquid are drawn out. The loaf is then placed 
in a lathe and turned smooth, when it is ready to be sent 
into market as loaf sugar. For the production of " A' 
sugar the loaves whilst still quite moist are placed in a 
cutting machine and shaved fine. This shaved sugar is 
sometimes carefully dried and the powdered portions sep- 
arated by sifting, when the remainder is sold as granulat- 
ed sugar. The loaves are at other times dried in hot 
air chambers and then broken in a crushing machine and 
the product separated by sieves into coarse crushed sugar 
and powdered sugar. 

The dried loaves are also sometimes cut into cubes and 
sold as cube sugar. 

The mother hquor, or first gi^eens, which has drained 
from the moulds is diluted, blown up, filtered thi'ough the 
bag and bone-black filters and again concentrated in the 



SUGAR. 239 

vacuum pan, from wliicli it is drawn off into the agitators, 
from which it may either be placed in moulds to drain or 
introduced into the centrifugal machine by which the 
mother liquor, known as second greens^ is removed. The 
sugar thus obtained is of a light buff color and is sent in- 
to market as " (7" sugar. The several greens are again 
subjected to purification by the filters, evaporated in the 
vacuum pans, transferred to the centrifugal machine which 
extracts the mother liquor, known as green syrup ^ and 
leaves a quite dark colored sugar, which is sold as " X" 
or yellow sugar. The green syrup is still again diluted, 
blown up and filtered, and concentrated to a proper con- 
sistency and sold as golden syrup. 

The loaf, "^", and other white sugars contain, when 
dry, 100 per cent, of cane sugar. C sugar contains us- 
ually 85 to 87 per cent of cane sugar, and yellow sugar 
from 80 to 83 per cent. The details of the process of re- 
fining sugar vary considerably in different refineries, and 
the quahty of the above grades of sugar produced will 
vary much with the quality of the raw sugar from which 
they are obtained, and a further gradation of commercial 
sugar is consequently used. In this countr}^ the grades us- 
ually named are Standard A, Off A, White Extra C, Yel- 
low C, Yellow and Brown. The Dutch standards are 
simply an arbitrary series of numbered raw sugars select- 
ted in Holland and in general use as standards. 

Sugar and syrup are made in the northern United 
States to a considerable extent from sorghum or northern 
sugar cane. These are names given to several varieties 
of the Sorghum saccharatum, a species of duna millet, 
native of the East Indies and recently assuming impor- 



240 SUGAR. 

tance as a sugar producing plant. It seems to have at- 
tracted no attention until since 1850 but is now cultivated 
to a considerable extent. The cane from Chinese seed is 
called sorgo and that from African seed imphee. There 
are numerous varieties of each. Sorghum will in general 
grow where corn will and should receive much the same 
kind of cultivation. The seed is planted in early spring 
in rows or drills about foui' feet apart. It is in condition 
for cutting when the seeds begin to harden in the fall. 
It is then cut near the ground, the leaves and top are re- 
moved and serve as forage for cattle, and the stems, which 
contain about nine per cent. , or only one half as much as 
those of the true sugar cane, are taken to the mill. This 
and the process of extracting the juice differ in no impor- 
tant particular from those used for the sugar cane. 

The fresh juice is greenish j^ellow and contains about 
ten per cent, of sugar. It is usually evaporated in open 
vessels with the addition of slacked lime to purify it, whilst 
the albuminous matters it contains cause the production 
of a large amount of scum, which has to be frequently re- 
moved. Owing to the large amount of impuiities present 
in the juice, the crude processes employed, and the 
lack of sufficient knowledge on the part of the average 
manufacturer a very large part of the cane sugar present 
in the juice becomes converted into grape sugar in the 
process of evaporation, and it becomes consequently im- 
possible, or nearly so, to make sugar from the solution, 
which is accordingly boiled only to sp'up and sold and 
used as such. The juice as obtained from the stems con- 
tains only cane sugar, whilst the sjnrup as sold in market 
usually contains about 50 per cent, of cane sugar and 30 



SUGAR. 241 

per cent, of grape sugar. The 3deld of syrup is froni 125 
to 180 gallons per acre of sorghum. 

Sugar from the maple. (See Maple Sugar.) Sugar 
from the beet. More than one third of the sugar made 
in the world is obtained from the sugar beet, {Betn vulga- 
ris) of which there are several varieties cultivated, the 
more important being the Silesian, the French vilmorin,' 
the Siberian and Imperial. The beet first began to be us- 
ed for the production of sugar about the beginning of the 
present century. Now nearly all the sugar made and' 
consumed in continental Europe is from this plant. 

The method of manufacture does not differ very great- 
ly from that used in making cane sugar. The roots are 
first washed in a revolving, open cylinder, placed beneath 
water, and the juice is then extracted, several different 
processes being in use for the purpose, the more common 
being to rasp the beets to a fine pulp in a machine, con- 
sisting essentially of a large, rapidly rotating drum, hav- 
ing its* surface thickly set with iron teeth, the rasped 
pulp being then placed in sacks, is pressed between iron 
plates in a hydraulic press. By this process from 80 to 
85 per cent, of the weight of beets used is extracted as 
juice. Good beets contain 96 per cent, of juice, of which 
about 12 per cent, is cane sugar. The juice is sometimes 
extracted from the pulp, by centrifugal machines and 
sometimes by repeated washings, and maceration in cold 
water. A process b}^ diffusion, in which the beet roots 
sliced into thin shavings, are exposed to the action of 
water for several hours is sometimes also employed. The 
juice after extraction is purified by boiling with lime, is 
filtered through bag and bone-black filters, and concen- 



242 SUGAR. 

tratecl to the crystallizing point in vacuum pans. The 
processes of refining the raw beet sugar are practically the 
same as for raw cane sugar and the refined product can- 
not be distinguished from the refined cane sugar. The 
introduction of beet sugar manufacture into the United 
States, has been tried to some extent but without gi-eat 
success. It is apparently reasonable to suppose that 
where beets can be produced so cheaply as in the West- 
ern States, with capital^ experience and skill, the manu- 
facture might be conducted with great profit. 

Sugar from Palm. In the East large quantities of sug- 
ar are made from the juice of various species of palm 
tree. The tree is usually tapped, a spout inserted, and 
the sap collected much as in making maple sugar in this 
country. The sap is evaporated in open kettles, and a 
crude sugar of dark color, but tolerably agi-eeable taste 
is obtained, which is common in Eastern markets under 
the name of Jaggery. 

The total amount of sugar produced in the United 
States, in 1870, as given by the census reports, was, of 
cane sugar, 87,043 hogsheads, sorghum, 24 hogsheads, 
maple, 28,443,645 pounds, of cane molasses, 6,593,323 
gallons, sorghum molasses, 16,050,089 gallons, of ma- 
ple, 921,057 gallons. The total production of sugar in 
the world in 1867 as given in one of the Jury reports of 
the Paris Exposition, was, of 

Cane sugar, 3,420,467,930 pounds 

Beet sugar, 1,433,000,000 " 

Pahn sugar, 220,462,000 " 

Maple sugar, 66,138,600 " 

Total 5,140,071,530 pounds. 



SULPHUR. 



243 



The island of Cuba produces annually about 700,000 
tons of sugar, or more than one fourth of the entire pro- 
duction of the world. The importation of foreign sugar 
into the United States in 1875, amounted to about 850, 
000 tons, very nearly all being raw sugar. The exporta- 
tion of refined sugar for the same year amounted to about 
25,000 tons. The consumption for the same year 
amounted to about 850,000 tons. 

The following interesting table giving the consumption 
of sugar in different countries of the world is from the 
Journal des Fabricants de /Sucre, Paris 1875. 



Countries. 


Consumption in 
pounds. 


Pounds 
per head. 


England, 


1,826,000,000 


50.6 


United States, 


1,694,000,000 


44.0 


Germany, 


673,000,000 


16.5 


Sweden, 


121,000,000 


15.6 


France, 


550,000,000 


15.5 


Austria and Hungary, 


374,000,000 


10.5 


Italy, 


220,000,000 


5.9 


Spain, 


110,000,000 


6.Q 


Eussia, 


330,000,000 


6.0 


Turkey, 


55,000,000 


3.3 



Sulphur, Brimstone, is found very widely and abun- 
dantly distributed throughout the earth in various forms 
of combination with other elements, and is also found 
native in many volcanic districts, the chief sources of 
supply being the Island of Sicil^^ and the Solfatara, near 
Naples. The sulphur, together with other mineral matter 
with which it is found adherent, is broken up and sub- 
mitted to distillation in fire-clay pots, when, at a compar- 
ativel}' low temperature, the sulphur is distilled over in a 



244 SWEET HERBS SWEET POTATO. 

nearly pure condition, and a second distillation serves to 
remove all impurities. The sulphur is drawn off from 
the receiving vessels, and poured into cylindrical wooden 
moulds from which it is removed when cold in the form 
of sticks, which are the Brimstone of commerce. If in 
the process of distillation the sulphur vapor is conveyed 
into a large chamber which is kept cool, the sulphur will 
be deposited in a pulverulent state, in which condition it 
is known as j^owers of sulphur. 

Sulphur melts at from 220° to 230° F., and boils at 
800°. It inflames at about 480°, burning with a pale 
blue flame, and the production of the sufibcating sulphur- 
ous oxide gas S O2. When exposed to the air it vapo- 
rizes more or less rapidly at almost all temperatures. 
Sulphur, from the low temperature at which it ignites, is 
used in the manufacture of gunpowder, of fireworks, and 
friction matches. The vapor which it produces in burn- 
ing is used to some extent in bleaching. It is of some 
medicinal value, being employed especially for cutaneous 
diseases both in men and animals. Many of its combi- 
nations are very useful in the arts and in manufactures. 

Sweet Herbs, are Thyme, Summer Savory, Marjo- 
rum. Balm, Basil and Sage, all members of the mint fam- 
ily, and used either green or dried, as a flavoring for 
soups and forcemeats. 

Sweet Potato, {Batatas edulis) a trailing plant belong- 
ing to the order convolvulacese. The root is perennial, 
tuberous ; tubers oblong, acute at each end, yellowish 
white or sometimes purple externally, yellowish within. 
The stem is four to eight feet long, slender and pros- 
trate ; leaves two to four inches in length. The plant is 



SWORD FISH SYRUP. 245 

cultivated for its large, sweet, edible farinaceous roots, 
especially in the Southern States, where it takes the place 
of the common potato. It is also successfully grown in 
New Jersey and Southern Michigan. They are largely 
shipped from New Jersey and the South to Northern 
markets. It is cultivated largely in the tropics of both 
hemispheres, and is the potato of the old English writers. 
Its native country is uncertain, some referring it to India 
and some to Tropical America. Sweet Potatoes were 
among the presents carried by Columbus to Isabella from 
the newly discovered world. The best varieties in cul- 
tivation are the Nausemond, Eed Skinned and Yellow 
Skinned. 

Sword Fish, (Xiphias gladius) a name applied to 
fishes remarkable for having the upper jaw prolonged 
forward in the shape of a bony sword. The common 
sword fish ranges from our Atlantic coast eastward to the 
Mediterranean. It is from ten to sixteen feet long, is a 
very rapid swimmer, and is said to attack the largest 
whale with its sword. It sometimes strikes vessels with 
such force as to leave its sword embedded in the planks 
of the vessel. Its flesh is excellent food, and it is cap- 
tured by the harpoon, affording an exciting and even dan- 
gerous sport. 

Syrup, as used here, signifies the liquid which drains 
from refined sugar (see sugar). It is rendered of a 
proper consistence by reboiling and filtering through an- 
imal charcoal. Its color depends upon the amount of 
impurities still remaining. These syrups may be said to 
constitute a purified form of treacle ; the above applies 
to syrup made from the sugar of cane. But most of the 



246 SYRUP. 

syrups now sold consist of glucose or stardi sugar, in- 
stead of cane sugar. From an article by R. C, Kedzie 
in the report of the State Board of Health of Michigan, 
for 1874, we select the following in relation to this class 
of sjTups. 

" The saccharification of the starch in France is carried 
on in large wooden vats, capable of holding 2,800 gal- 
lons. The contents of the vat may be heated by forcing 
in steam through a coiled steam pipe at the bottom. The 
steam pipe is perforated, to permit the steam to escape at 
many points into the contents of the vat. In France the 
steam pipe is made of lead ; in this country I suspect 
they use ii'on pipes. When two tons of starch are to be 
converted into sugar, 32 barrels of water and about 80 
lbs. of sulphuric acid are placed in the vat, and the whole 
heated to 212°, by forcing in steam. Two hundred 
poimds of starch are then mixed with 22 gallons of wa- 
ter and stuTcd up, and 4 or 5 gallons of this mixture are 
run into the vat. The temperature is kept up to the 
boihng point all the while, and successive charges of 
starch are run in till the whole amount is converted into 
sugar. The steam is then shut off, and chalk is added 
in sufficient quantity to neutralize the sulphuric acid, but 
if too httle chalk is used, free sulphuric acid wiU be left 
in the contents of the vat. The sparingly soluble sul- 
phate of lime is formed, and much of it settles to the 
bottom of the hquid ; the clear liquid is di'awn off and 
evaporated by steam heat till the proper density of s^Tup 
is secured, or until it wiU crystallize on coohng and stand- 
ing for several days, according as they seek to make syr- 
up or sugar. 



SYKUP. 247 

This brief description will assist us to understand why 
certain impurities are found in these starch-sugar syrups. 
If iron pipes are used to convey the steam for heating the 
contents of the vat, the sulphuric acid will attack and dis- 
solve some of the iron, and thus sulphate of iron (cop- 
peras) will appear in the syrup. If too httle chalk is 
used, free sulphuric acid will remain in the syrup. The 
chalk being carbonate of hme, its use will explain why 
lime ma3^ be found in large quantity in the syrup. As 
chalk is insoluble in water, and sulphate of lime is very 
sparingly soluble, many persons would suppose that little 
or no lime would remain in these syrups. But we must 
bear in mind that sugar itself acts the part of an acid with 
many basic substances. Thus there are two well known 
salts formed by combination of sugar and lime, one con- 
taining one equivalent of lime to one of sugar ; the other 
containing three equivalents of lime to one of sugar. 
These sucrates of lime have lost entirely the sweet taste 
characteristic of sugar, and have a bitterish taste instead. 

Not only will sugar thus combine with lime, oxide of 
lead, oxide of iron, etc., but it will associate with itself 
sulphuric acid, and form a compound acid which com- 
ports itself ver}' differently from simple sulphuric acid. 
This sucro-sulphuric acid forms a pretty large class of 
salts which are soluble in water, but especially soluble in 
solutions of sugar. Reagents which mil readily precipi- 
tate sulphuric acid, and sulphates, e. g. chloride of bari- 
um, will not precipitate the sucro-sulphates. 

Glucose has the same power as an acid substance as su- 
crose, forming a class of soluble glucosates. It will also 
associate with itself sulphuric acid, and form a class of 



248 SYRUP. 

gluco-sulphates of a like character as the sucro-sulphates. 
Undoubted!}- a large part of the lime found in these 
starch-sugar sjTups exists in the form of gluco- sulphate 
of lime. The sparing solubihty of sulphate of lime in 
water is no guaranty that these sjTups will not contain 
a large amount, because it may exist in the form of the 
soluble gluco-sulphate of lime. 

One evil connected with the presence of lime in syrups 
is the destruction of a portion of the sweetening power 
of the syrup. One part of lime will destroy more than 
six times its weight of sugar, so far as any sweetness is 
concerned ; and the compound of lime and sugar is bitter. 

In making my selections for examination, I obtained 
specimens only from those who are regarded as first-class 
tradesmen. If sjTups bought at such places are adulter- 
ated, we may well suppose that the inferior class of deal- 
ers will have no better articles. Some have said that, 
undoubtedly, poor people who trade at small gToceries 
are swindled in these s^Tups, but that the respectable 
class of citizens who patronize first-class grocers need not 
apprehend any such imposition. I determined to follow 
up " the respectable citizen" and see what syrups he ob- 
tained of " first-class grocers." Part of the specimens 
were obtained near home, but the most from abroad. I 
have examined 17 specimens in all, with the general re- 
sult that 2 were made of cane sugar and 15 of starch 
sugar or glucose. 

SPECIFIC RESULTS OF EXAMINATION OF TABLE SYRUPS. 

No.l. — Pure cane sugar sjTup. 

No. 2. — Starch sugar sjTup. Contains some sulphate of 



STRUP. 249 

iron (copperas), and contains in each gallon 107.35 
grains of lime. 
No. 3. — The grocer called it "poor stuff." I have sel- 
dom seen an article that better sustained its recommen- 
dation. Made of starch sugar ; contains plenty of 
copperas and 297 grains of hme in a gallon. 
No. 4. — Nearly pure cane sugar syrup. 
No. 5. — Starch sugar sjTup. Contains copperas, and 

100 grains of lime in a gallon. 
Nos. 6, 7, 8. — All made of starch sugar. Contain sul- 
phate of u"on and plenty of hme. 

No. 9. — All the members of a family in Hudson, Mich- 
igan, were made very sick by eating freely of this syrup. 
A starch sugar syrup ; contains in the gallon 71.83 grains 
of free sulphuric acid, 28 grains of sulphate of iron, and 
363 grains of hme. 

No. 10. — Contains starch sugar, copperas, and hme — 
amount not estimated. 

No. 11. — ^A starch sugar syrup. Contains in the gal- 
lon 141.9 grains free sulphuric acid, 25 grains sulphate 
of iron, and 724.83 grains of hme. 

No. 12. — Contains starch sugar, seasoned with sul- 
phate of iron and hme. 

No. 13. — Starch sugar. Contains in the gallon 58.48 
grains of sulphate of iron, 83.14 grains of free sulphuric 
acid, and 440.12 grains of lime. 

No. 14. — Starch sugar. Contains in a gallon 80 grains 
of free sulphuric acid, 38 grains of iron and 262.48 
grains of lime. 

Nos. 15, 16. — Contain starch sugar, sulphate of iron, 
and lime. 



250 SYRUP. 

No. 17. Starch sugar, sulphate of iron, and 202.33 
grains of lime. 

A verj" important element in this discussion is the 
great disparitj' in sweetening power between cane sugar 
and starch sugar or glucose. One pound of cane sugar 
has the same sweetening power as two and a half pounds 
of glucose. In these starch-sugar sjTups, the pubhc is 
not only treated with compounds loaded with foreign and 
injurious materials, but thej are enormously cheated in 
the very thing they seek to buy, viz. the sweetness. 
Sugars and sjTups are bought, not as articles of food 
solely, but entirel}" for their sweetness, and thus the buyer 
is largely defrauded out of the very thing for which alone 
he makes a purchase. 

The thought of using such mixtures as a relish for our 
food is not very appetizing. Some of these drips seem 
to be made up of about equal parts of fraud and dirt ! A 
facetious Mend has quoted, in this connection, the old 
saying, " A man must eat his peck of du't before he 
dies." K any one feels uneasy lest he be defi'auded of 
" his peck of diil," let him eat a few gallons of No. 11, 
and he may rest on his lam-els for the balance of his 
days. 

WHOSE FAULT? 

The pubhc will natm^ally ask, " Who is to blame that 
such disgusting and fraudulent mixtures are sold in the 
shops? I do not think that the retail dealers are " sinners 
above all that dwell in" Michigan in this respect. Most 
of them honestl}' suppose that they are selling a good 
article of cane sugar sjTup, and are themselves surprised 
that so good looking syrups can be sold at so low a price 



S YKUP TAPIOCA . 251 

compared with tliat of sugar — a price often less than that 
of the dark colored and strong flavored molasses which 
remains from the manufacture of cane sugar. The man- 
ufacturers are chiefly to blame in this matter, for they 
cannot be ignorant of the fraud in selling glucose for 
cane sugar ; but even they will probably be surprised to 
learn how large a quantity of foreign materials is left in 
these syrups, 

TESTS. 

It is popularly supposed that an infusion of tea leaves 
will certainly detect the presence of starch sugar, by the 
dark coloration which it imparts to the syrup. Strong 
tea will give a re-action of this kind with a salt of iron — 
the same re-action which makes black ink ; hence strong 
tea may be used to detect the presence of copperas in 
syrup ; but it will give no reaction with grape sugar con- 
taining no iron. 

In most of these syrups, lime is the largest adulterant 
aside from the starch sugar itself. Lime may easily be 
recognized in the syrup by a solution of oxalic acid. 
Dissolve one ounce of oxalic acid in a pint of rain water ; 
if the solution is not clear, let it stand for a few hours 
till it settles, then pour off the clear solution into a clean 
bottle and label it Oxalic Acid : Poison. To test the 
syrup, place a tablespoonful in a tumbler half full of rain- 
water, stir it up, and add a tablespoonful of the oxalic 
acid solution. If there is much lime in the syrup it will 
show itself by a white precipitate, the amount of which 
will give some measure of the amount of lime present." 

Tapioca, a starch obtained from the species of mani- 
hot, a shrub, native of South America. The expressed 



252 TARTARIC ACID. 

juice, after the manufacture of mandioca (which see) 
after being allowed to stand, deposits a white powder, 
which after being well washed and dried constitutes Tap- 
ioca meal or Brazilian arrowroot. When this meal is 
dried on hot plates, the gTains partly burst, and the fecu- 
la agglomerates in irregular semi-opaque, gum like masses, 
and this is what is called Tapioca. There is a false tapi- 
oca found in the shops consisting of very small, smooth, 
spherical grains, which is sold as Pearl Tapioca. It is 
supposed to be manufactured from potato starch. 

Tartaric Acid, is obtained from the crude tartar or 
argol deposited in the casks by fermenting wine. (See 
Cream of Tartar. ) Argol is an impure bitartrate of po- 
tassa. To obtain tartaric acid, argol is dissolved in hot 
water, and pulverized chalk slowly added until efferves- 
cence ceases. By this process tartrate of hme is formed 
which settles to the bottom of the vessel, and bitartrate 
of potassa is reduced to the soluble tartrate which re- 
mains in solution in the clear liquid, with which it is 
drawn off, and to which is then added a quantity of chlo- 
ride of lime, which causes the rest of the tartaric acid to 
enter into combination with the lime, forming another 
quantity of insoluble tartrate of lime. These two precip- 
itates are then united, dried, and treated with sulphuric 
acid, which decomposes the salt, producing sulphate of 
lime, which is thrown down as an insoluble precipitate, 
and free tartaric acid, which remains in solution. This 
solution is drawn off and concentrated in leaden pans, 
until the tartaric acid becomes crj^stallized out. Com- 
mercial tartaric acid is apt to be contaminated by traces 
of sulphuric acid and lead. It is used principally in dye- 



TEA. 253 

ing, and in the preparation of baking powders and effer- 
vescing drinks. 

Tea is the prepared leaves of a small shrub, (^Camellia 
Tliea) , from three to six feet high, a native of Northern 
India and closely resembhng our common camellia. The 
leaves are simple and feather veined, oblong or broadly lan- 
ceolate, longer than wide, with serrate edges. The tree is 
largely cultivated in China and Japan, from which coun- 
tries the markets of the world are supplied with tea. The 
first mention we have of the use of tea in China, was in 
the fourth century, but b}^ the ninth it was in general use. 
The Dutch were probably the first to introduce tea into 
Europe, about the beginning of the seventeenth century ; 
about the middle of the century the East India Company 
began to import tea into England, and from being used 
by a few hundred people at that time, it has now become 
the common beverage to the milhons of English speak- 
ing people wherever they can obtain it. On its first in- 
troduction into England it sold as high as ten guineas a 
pound, while at the present time good tea may be had 
for two shillings. The preparation of tea from the tea 
plant has been surrounded with some m3^stery on ac- 
count of the distance at which it occurs, but the afiair is, 
however, very simple in all except what refers to minute 
details in its preparation, which of course must vary in 
different parts of the country. There is but one species 
of tea plant, and from this, and probably from a variety, 
all our different teas are obtained. The Chinese make 
new plantations by planting the seeds at regular distances 
from each other, and in about three ^-ears the plant yields 
its fii-st crop ; in seven or ten years it is cut down and 



254 TEA. 

shoots spring up in profusion from the old stump, and 
yield an abundance of leaves. The average product of 
a single plant seems to be about six ounces, and from an 
acre of ground about 320 pounds of dried leaves are 
obtained. 

The leaves are picked by hand, and three harvests are 
generally made during the year ; the first in April, the 
second in May, and the third in June or July. The first 
gathering is the most valuable, and consists only of the 
young and tender leaves which yield a fine young Hyson, 
with a thin leaf, and a large proportion of juice in rela- 
tion to the solid substance of the leaf. This tea is diffi- 
cult of preparation on account of its being liable to fer- 
ment, and on this account is not shipped in large masses, 
but is sent over-land in small quantities to Kussia ; also 
a good portion of the crop is kept for the use of the 
wealthy Chinese. The later pickings are less valuable, 
those of July being the least so. The leaves are now 
older and contain much more tannin, which gives an as- 
tringent and bitter taste to the infusion. 

The difference in the manufacture of Black and Green 
teas consists in the leaves of the former undergoing a 
sort of fermentation before drying, while the latter are 
directly submitted to a high temperature in ii'on pans, — the 
idea that green tea is obtained by drjing the tea in cop- 
per pans, being quite a fallacy. In making black tea 
the process is not unlike that of making hay. The leaves 
are placed in heaps, and allowed to undergo a certain de- 
gree of fermentation b}^ which they assume a dark color, 
and become flaccid. They are then subjected to the op- 
eration of the twisters, who either twist them between 



TEA. 255 

thumb and forefinger, or place them on a table of split 
bamboo, where they are rubbed and rolled by the hands 
till the twisting is effected. From the twisters the leaves 
are taken to the drying room, and heated for some min- 
utes in an iron pan. They are again subjected to the 
operation of the twisters, and then put in wicker cylin- 
ders and dried on a slow fire. This operation is repeated 
several times till they become black and crisp. For 
green tea the leaves are put directly into firing pans, 
over charcoal fires, and after a short time are removed 
and subjected to the operation of the rollers, who roll 
them in the different forms in which they appear in mar- 
ket. They are again put on the fire for drying, and the 
operation is repeated until they are dry and crisp, when 
they are stowed away for use or for market. The green 
teas of commerce are artificially colored by turmeric pow- 
der and a mixture of gypsum or Prussian blue, or of 
gypsum and indigo. Some of the teas are flavored or 
scented by placing among the leaves, during preparation, 
aromatic flowers of certain plants. Pekoes and Capers 
are the kinds most generally flavored. Of Black Tea 
we have the following varieties, Bohea, which is in the 
form of a small blackish leaf, dusty and of somewhat 
brackish taste ; it should be quite crisp and have a strong 
odor. Congous are of two kinds, one with a large leaf 
and but little dust, with a fine flavor, and the other with 
a small, wiry leaf and burnt smell. Soucliong or EngUsh 
Breakfast is made from leaves of trees three years old, 
and from older trees when they are grown in very rich 
soil. But there is very little of this variety made, and 
that which is sold for it is simply a good qualit}' of Con- 



256 TEA. 

gou. Genuine Soucliong should be crisp and dry, not 
broken, of a pleasant, fragTant smell and free from dust. 

Caper Souchong is so called from its being rolled up 
like a caper ; it is of a fine glossy black color, heavy, 
fragrant smell, high flavor, and the infusion, of a bright 
reddish brown color. Padre Souchong, or Powchong, is 
a superior variety, of a fine taste, smell and flavor, with 
large leaves not strongly twisted and whole. Pekoe is 
made from the tenderest leaves of three year old plants 
gathered after the plants are in bloom. The}^ are col- 
lected just as the buds have burst and made a shoot 
long enough for a sprig, when it is picked ofi". It is reg- 
ularly curled and should never be broken. These teas 
are often scented and used to impart flavor to other teas. 
Ball Tea is a kind of Black tea made into baUs about the 
size of a nutmeg and gummed together. Oolongs are 
black teas generally of the poorer kind, with a Kght col- 
ored infusion and penetrating flavor and well adapted for 
mixing with other varieties. Of Green teas we have, 
Gunpowder : should be round like small shot, with a beau- 
tiful bloom which will not bear the breath ; it has a 
greenish hue and a fragrant, pungent taste. This kind 
of tea is often adulterated by inferior kinds colored, 
glazed, and manipulated to look hke the Gunpowder 
with which it is mixed. When the leaf is open and 
loose, the outside of a darker hue, and the taste brassy 
and unpleasant, it should be rejected. 

Imperial^ much like Gunpowder only more loosely 
rolled and -coarser. Young Hyson is of a fine blooming 
color, very dry, crisp, full sized grains and will crumble 
to dust on the slightest pressui'e. The infusion is of a 



TEA. 257 

light green color, an aromatic smell and strong pungent 
taste and the leaf should open clear and smooth without 
being broken or shrivelled, as this is an indication of age. 
The teas which give a high color to water should be re- 
jected as they have been " doctored." Old Hyson con- 
sists of the largest, most irregular and worst colored of 
the leaves that are picked from the young h3^son. Its 
infusion is of a pale yellowish green, of a delicate taste, 
with something of a bm^nt taste. Some of the Old Hy- 
son is simply the true hyson, after becoming old, and, 
after repeated drying and freshing it up, is sent to the 
market a second time. Tiaankay consists of the broken 
and mixed leaves and is of inferior quality. Japan Tea is 
largely consumed in this country, and, as its name im- 
plies, is imported from Japan. It has an agreeable odor, 
is both colored and uncolored. In the cup the infusion 
should be of light color, fragrant, and, in the better qual- 
ities, of a mild and pleasant taste. 

Most of our tea trade with China is carried on from 
the ports of Shanghai, Foo-Chow and Amoy. The tea is 
mostly brought over in steamers and reaches New York by 
the way of the Suez Canal, from Shanghai in from six^ 
to seventy days ; by the wsiy of San Francisco the tiij^ 
is shortened about twenty days. The Japan tea, by way 
of the latter place, arrives in about thirtj^-five dixjs. Fo^ 
the year ending June 30th, 1876, there were im^Dorted 
into the United States 62,887,153 lbs., valued at $ 19, 
524,166. This would give about one and a half pounds ' 
for each person in the United States. Of this amount 
imported, Japan tea takes the lead. Tea prepared for 
shipping is more highly fired than that for. home use ; and 



258 TEA. 

it is said that wMch comes across the Pacific is superior 
to that from other routes. The tea sent to Russia over- 
land from China is in the form of bricks. It is made by 
mixing the dried leaves with some glutinous substance 
and putting it in molds and chying it in an oven. Tea as 
generally exported is packed loose in chests of wood 
lined with sheet lead. In India the cultivation of tea is 
being successfully carried on and considerable quantities 
are imported into England. Tea dust has of late years 
made its appearance in market but it cannot be recom- 
mended for either cleanliness, purity or qualitj^ The 
chemical composition of tea, in 100 parts, consists of 
theine which is the essential principle, 2 to 3, caseine 15, 
gum 18, sugar 3, tannin 26.25 starch, aromatic oil, 0.75, 
fat 4, vegetable fibre 20, mineral substance 5 and water 5. 
Tea is astringent and gently excitant, and exei-ts 
a favorable infiuence on the nervous system; but 
when taken in excess it induces nervous and d3^speptic 
sjonptoms. Many large houses employ professional tea 
tasters who prepare their samples from a uniform and 
very small quantity, viz. the weight of a new sixpence, 
which is infused for about five minutes in a covered 
pottery vessel, with about four ounces of water, and, 
in tasting, the tea is not swallowed. He must have a 
sensitive and refined taste, and should be in good health, 
to determine properly the flavor of the tea. Teas should 
never be bought unless tested by steeping, as a fair stjde 
tea may be a poor drawer, and the adulteration of tea 
is more readily detected in this manner. That tea is 
largely adulterated by the addition of leaves of other 
plants, and by various mineral and organic elements is a 



TEA. 259 

matter that is well known. At the Exhibition of 1876, 
in Philadelphia, a number of plants used in the adultera- 
tion of green and black teas were on exhibition. One of 
the British Consuls at Shanghai stated that at one time 
there were 53,000 pounds of willow leaves in oom-se of 
preparation to mix with the tea for shipment in the ratio 
of from 10 to 20 per cent. The willow leaves cost about 
four cents a pound and no concealment is made of the 
business, which is regularly carried qn. One of the most 
common forms of adulteration is the coloring or " fac- 
ing" of teas. All our green teas are thus colored in or- 
der to conceal other leaves, and to meet the demands of 
the trade. This coloring is carried on in the United 
States and England as well as in China, though in the 
latter country the colored tea is never used. As before 
stated these coloring materials consist of Prussian blue, 
indigo, turmeric and kaolin ; and steatite, graphite etc. 
are used to impart a glossy color to the leaves. Most 
of these coloring matters can be detected by the use of 
the microscope. Silica, metallic iron, old tea leaves 
and leaves of other plants are added to increase the 
weight. Strength is given to exhausted tea by the addi- 
tion of tannin and soluble iron salts. "Lie Tea" used 
to adulterate gunpowder tea, consists of tea dust mixed 
with mineral substances and starch and gum, and then 
formed into little masses resembling tea ; hot water 
will dissolve this gum and the grains will become libera- 
ted. Caper tea is a similar preparation and mnj be 
tested in the same way. Metallic iron ma^- be detected 
by the use of the magnet ; salts of iron b}^ heating the 
powdered sample with acetic acid and testing by ferro- 



260 TOBACCO. 

cj^anide of potassium. An English paper states that a 
sample of tea proved to be composed of the following 
substances ; iron, plumbago, chalk, china clay, sand, 
Prussian blue, turmeric, indigo, starch, gj^sum, catechu, 
gum, the leaves of the cammelia, sarangua, elm, oak, 
willow, poplar, elder, beech, hawthorn and sloe. 

In the steeping of tea the amount should be regulated 
b}^ weight, as the bulk and weight are not convertible 
terms : a given bulk of Gunpowder is more than three 
times heavier than the same of Oolong. Soft or brook 
water is preferable to well water, and the water used 
should be newly boiled. The water should be applied to 
the tea while in a boiling condition, and the tea allowed 
to steep for about five minutes, when it may be served. 
Black and Japan teas require more steeping to extract 
their essential qualities than the gi^een teas. In this coun- 
try sugar and milk are generall}^ added to the infusion of 
tea ; in Russia lemon juice is added, while in its native 
country the infusion of the tea is drank clear. 

Tobacco, {Nicotiana Tabacum) an annual plant be- 
longing to the Nightshade familj^ The stem is from four 
to six feet high, stout, becoming almost wood}^ at base, 
paniculately branched above. Leaves from one to two 
feet long, and six inches in width, being smaller as they 
ascend. The flowers are in a loose terminal panicle, co- 
rollas funnel form, the petals rose colored, the calj^x one 
third the length of the corolla ; the seed vessel or capsule 
is ovoid or sulcate on each side ; seeds^many and small. 
The tobacco plant is a native of tro|)ical America and was 
in use by the Indians when the country was first discov- 
ered. From America it was carried to Eui'ope, where its 



TOBACCO. 261 

use rapidly spread. It is now cultivated in all the coun- 
tries of the world where the climate is mild enough for 
its growth. The great commercial supply is derived from 
the United States, where it is cultivated in almost every 
state in the Union, the middle and southern states pro- 
ducing the most. It is cultivated in the West Indies and 
is largely produced in central and southern Europe. It 
is cultivated by the natives of Africa, from the Mediter- 
ranean to the Cape of Good Hope. It is found all over 
Asia, the Indian Archipelago, Australia, and the islands 
of Polynesia, and it would be difficult to find a place 
where the weed is not found. 

It is a strange commentary on human nature that this 
nauseous and powerfully narcotic plant, smoked by sav- 
ages in the wilds of America, should have spread so rap- 
idly not only among civilized races but also among those 
farthest removed from all civihzing influence. We are 
accustomed to wonder that the Chinese and other Asiatic 
races should be addicted to the use of opium, but the use 
of tobacco amongst us has become so common that we 
are liable to forget that it is of the same nature and more 
widely used. When tobacco was first introduced into the 
Old World it was received with a sort of enthusiasm, and 
Europeans, Africans and Asiatics began to smoke, chew 
and snuff. But its evil effects were soon apparent, and 
it began to meet violent opposition. Theologians called 
it an invention of Satan to prevent fasting ; Church coun- 
cils prohibited its use by the clergy. Two of the Poi)es 
punished its use b}^ excommunication. Prussia and Den- 
mark prohibited its use, whilst James of England Avrote 
a pamphlet against it. But finding that nothing succeed- 



262 TOBACCO. 

ed in checking its use, the governments turned it into a 
source of rcA^enue, and would allow its cultivation and 
manufacture only under restrictions or monopolies and 
these still prevail in many parts of Europe. 

The distinctive and valuable properties of tobacco are 
found mostly in the leaves, for which the plant is culti- 
vated. B}^ analj^sis chemists have found that in 10,000 
parts of fresh tobacco there are 6 of nicotine, 1 of nicoti- 
anine, 287 of bitter extractive, 174 of gum, 26.7 of resin, 
26 of albumen, 104.8 of a substance analogous to gluten, 
51 of chloride of potassium, 9.5 of potash, 16.6 of malate 
of lime, 24.2 of lime, 8.8 of sihca, 496.9 of hgnine and 
8,828 parts of water. The oil distilled from tobacco, and 
called tobacco oil, is a most vu'ulent poison. 

For the cultivation of tobacco a rich soil and favorable 
climate is requisite to grow it in perfect-ion. The seeds 
are sown in beds to raise the young plants and these are 
transplanted to the open fields in April or May, and set 
in rows two or three feet apart one way to allow of being 
cultivated by a horse and plow. The cultivation must 
be thorough and the gTound kept clean. As the leaves 
are the part desired, every effort is made to increase their 
size and perfect their growth. The , plant is topped just 
before blooming, and the suckers broken off, as well as 
superfluous leaves removed. From three to four months 
are required to fit the crop for gathering. When the 
plant begins to yellow it is cut close to the ground, by 
raising the bottom leaves and cutting the stem with a to- 
bacco knife. The plants are allowed to lie on the ground 
for a short time, to fall or wilt, when they are placed in 
small heaps of eight or ten plants in a heap, and thus 



TOBACCO. 263 

taken to the drying house, or they may be speared, which 
consists in stringing the plants on a small stick, and then 
carrying to the house on these sticks. 

In the di-ying house these sticks are hung on rafters 
about 12 or 15 inches apart, and the leaves, being smooth- 
ed down, are allowed to diy, pushing the sticks together 
as the leaves dry. This dr}dng operation lasts some 
weeks, and in some houses artificial heat is used in the 
process. Sometimes the leaves are partially fermented 
before drjqng, and a second sweating afterward, before 
the final manufacture. During the process of partial 
sweating and drpng is developed a powerful aroma, with 
strong narcotic and acrid properties. After the tobacco 
is cured and dry it is stripped ; which operation can on- 
ly be performed during mild and damp weather. It is 
taken off the sticks and laid in heaps, when the leaves 
are stiipped from the plants and tied in bundles of small 
size ; these bundles are formed by wrapping a leaf around 
the upper end of a handful of leaves, and tucking the 
end into the middle of the bundle. In a crop of tobacco 
there should be four sorts, second, bright, yellow and 
dull. When the tobacco is taken down the culler sepa- 
rates the leaves into the different sorts, and ties them into 
bundles, these being kept separate for convenience in 
bulking. This operation consists in placing the bundles 
in rows so as to allow free circulation of the air. After 
being bulked several t^imes it is weighted down by sticks 
or logs, and is in order for packing. The best time for 
packing is during the mild, pleasant weather of spring or 
in summer. The crop is generally packed in hogsheads, 
and the brand and grade put on by a state inspector. In 



264 TOBACCO. 

Virginia and the adjacent States the hogsheads contain 
from 250 to 1200 pounds. The inferior tobacco of Mar}^- 
land consists of stems, lugs, etc., packed for export, 
weighing but from 650 to 800 pounds per hogshead. 
Western tobacco reaches 1500 pounds or more. Leaf 
tobacco is also packed in bales of about 250 pounds 
weight for export, and manufactured tobacco in cases of 
about the same average weight. Lugs are the lowest 
quality of tobacco ex[3orted, and consist of stems, strip- 
pings and broken leaves. The best fuU leaves are com- 
monl}^ packed as wrappers, and are generally very high 
pmced. 

Manufactured tobacco is technically distinguished fi:om 
both the whole leaf and cigars or snuff. It is generally 
made from common or inferior leaves. These leaves are 
placed on one another to form large cakes, and then cut 
by a machine, somewhat similar to om' straw cutter, 
worked b}' horse or steam power. The machine can be 
regulated so as to cut either coarse or fine. The dark 
leaves, after being cut, are rendered stiU darker by the ad- 
dition of syrups and liquorice ; it is then pressed into 
cakes of various forms and sizes. The better sort of 
leaves are spun into rolls of different S'izes ; what is 
known as Negrohead consisting of large, coarse roUs, 
weighing from six to eight pounds. Pig-tail is also spun, 
but is made mto fine rolls about the size of a pipe stem, 
all of these being flavored hj the addition of sweetening. 
The outsides of these rolls are wrapped round with whole 
leaves. The stjie of plug known as Cavendish is first 
cut by machinery, and, being softened and flavored, is, 
by powerful pressm-e, formed into cakes and these packed 



TOBACCO. 265 

into oak boxes or caddies and sent to market. It is used 
both for the purposes of chewing and smoking. The 
names Cavendish, navy twist, negrohead, etc., are stan- 
dard names or brands by which the different forms of 
sohd or pressed tobacco are known. " Fine cut" che wing- 
is sliredded and loose, and is cut by delicate machinerj', 
generally from the better quahties of leaves, and flavoi^d 
by the addition of sweetening. In fine cut the length of 
the shreds and a bright color, are tests of good qualit}'. 
Smoking tobacco is made of all grades and styles but 
mostly from stems, broken leaves, and other inferior 
parts. In trade many names are given to particular 
styles, but these are continually changing. Killikinick, 
cut cavendish and the common cut leaf, embrace most 
of these classes. For these kinds of smoking the tobac- 
co is granulated in a mill or shaved in a fine cutting ma- 
chine. Most of the operations in the manufacture of to- 
bacco are done by machinery. Shorts is a term given to 
the siftings of tobacco, and is used both for smoking 
and chewing. 

Snuff is made from the leaf stalks of the tobacco, or 
combined with leaves ; it is sometimes made with the ad- 
dition of rosewood dust, salt and various drugs. The 
material is well dried before being ground, which is ac- 
complished by mills. The old method was by grinding 
in small mortars, the pestles of which were moved by 
machinery. It is now ground by steam in iron mills. 
For the last half century, Scotch snuff has been the fa- 
vorite, but the use of snuff is now declining. For the 
3^ear ending June 30, 1876, there were manufactured iu 
the United States, 3,317,086 pounds of snuff. The 



266 TOBACCO, 

standard branches of snuff in market are the Maceaboy, 
originallv from Martinique and Spain, Rappee, or the 
French, and that known as Scotch snuff. The revenue 
tax on manufactured snuff is twenty-four cents per pound. 
Snuff is largely adulterated both by other leaves and the 
addition of various di'ugs. It is doubtful if much adul- 
teration takes place in our manufactured tobacco, bej^ond 
the addition of flavors and sweetening ; the poorer sort 
of smoking may be adulterated. In England adultera- 
tions are extensively carried on, and stringent laws are 
passed for its prevention. The tobacco trade and man- 
ufacture is a source of great revenue to the government. 
All manufactured tobacco pays a tax of twenty four 
cents to the pound. The receipts from internal revenue 
on manufactured tobacco, cigars and snuff, as well as the 
taxes for dealers were, for 1876, $39,790,274. The 
amount exported for the year ending June 30, 1875, was 
233,927,167 -lbs, valued at $28,547,862. In England 
the cultivation of tobacco is prohibited bj' law, so that 
more revenue msij be derived from this soui'ce. Most of 
our exported tobacco goes to German}^ and the Low 
Countries ; next, to England, France, Italy, etc. 

Bremen is the greatest general tobacco market in Eu- 
rope, and Liverpool next. The United States produces 
more than half of the tobacco consumed in the world. 
The average of the crop in the United States for the five 
3^ears ending with 1875, was about 450,000,000 pounds. 
Cuba annually raises a large quantity of tobacco of supe- 
rior quahty and it is almost wholly consumed in the man- 
ufacture of cigars either at home or abroad. The tobac- 
co plant is very severe on soil, rapidly exhausting the 






TOMATO TRIPE. 267 

ground on whicli it is raised and large areas of land have 
been abandoned in the Southern States as worthless or 
worn out. Tobacco, used in whatever form, is undoubt- 
edly injurious to the system, and if long continued must 
produce e\il results. The evil is greatest with chewing, 
smoking next, and snuffing last. Tobacco is used to a 
slight extent in medicine. 

Tomato, {Lycopersicum esculentum) an annual plant 
native of Tropical America, and now largely cultivated 
in this country and Europe. It was introduced into 
France from America under the name of Love Apples, 
and, coming into general use there, was brought back to 
this country. They are now extensively cultivated and 
eaten raw or cooked. They enter largely into the man- 
ufacture of soup, sauces and pickles. The fruit of the 
tomato is a true berry, from one to four inches or more 
in diameter, globose or flatly depressed, often distorted 
by large swelling ridges, red or reddish orange color 
when mature. Flowers from June to August, and fruits 
in August and September, in the north United States. The 
varieties in cultivation are very numerous and change 
rapidly. Among the best now in cultivation are the Can- 
ada Victor, Trophy and General Grant. Immense quan- 
tities of tomatoes are canned and consumed annually. 

Tripe, an article of food prepared from the stomach 
and intestines, with the fattj^ structure attached thereto, 
of the ox and cow, and consists of the walls of these or- 
gans and the enclosed fat. It is prepared by thoroughly 
cleansing the organs from all impurities and gently boiling 
them in water for about an hour. It is food easy of di- 
gestion and of somewhat agreeable flavor. It is eaten in 



268 TROUT TKUFFLES. 

a fresh state, but is most commonly pickled, and is known 
as pickled tripe. 

Trout, a name applied to a species of fish belonging to 
the genus Salmo, of the salmon family. The Great Trout 
of the Lakes {jS. amethystus) is from twenty-four to sixty 
inches long, dark gray, with numerous hght spots on the 
back and sides ; under part light ashy gray, or cream col- 
or. Its average weight is about five pounds, though it 
sometimes attains a weight of one hundred and twenty 
pounds. It is often called Mackinaw trout. It is found 
in the deep waters of the Lakes, and is mostly taken by 
gill nets, though they may be easily taken by the hook, 
as they are voracious and will bite almost any bait. 
These fish are largely eaten fresh, though they are salted 
and packed in kits and barrels similar to the mackerel. 
The Speckled Trout or Brook Trout, {S. fontinaUs) found 
in the clear streams of northern North America, is from 
six to twenty inches long, horn color above, with irregu- 
lar dark markings, and sides variegated with silvery white 
and yellow spots with vermilhon dots. This fish is much 
sought after by anglers, and the flesh is considered as a 
delicate luxury. 

Truffles, the common name for several species of fungi, 
of the genus Tuber ^ the most common being T. eestivum. 
They are roundish in outline, with black, wrinkled exte- 
rior, and brown and solid inside. In size thej^ are from 
one to three or four inches in diameter. They are the 
most highly esteemed of all the edible fungi. Their man- 
ner of growth is pecuhar, the entire life of the plant being 
passed at a depth of from six to twelve inches below the 
smface of the ground. Trained dogs and swine are em- 



TUNNY FISH — TURNIPS. 269 

ployed to find the truffles, wMcli they do by scent, and 
when they begin to dig for them the attendant drives them 
away and digs the truffle himself, with a trowel, reward- 
ing the animal with a tid-bit of some other food. Truffles 
are found in calcareous soils, growing among the roots of 
oak trees. They are native throughout Europe, and oc- 
cur to some extent in this country, but are cultivated only 
in France. 

Tunny Fish, ( Thynnus vulgaris) a large fish belong- 
ing to the mackerel family, and abundantly caught in the 
Black and Mediterranean seas, and to some extent in the 
Atlantic Ocean. The fish sometimes attains a length of 
twenty feet, and exceeds half a ton in weight. The flesh 
is eaten both fresh and salted, and is highly esteemed. 
These fish move in vast shoals, and, being surrounded 
with a net, are killed with the harpoon. 

Turnips, the fleshy root of a variety of Brassica cam- 
pestris, a biennial plant belonging to the Mustard family. 
It is a native of Europe, but is cultivated extensively in 
all cool, temperate climates, for food both for man and 
animals. Although highly esteemed by many as a t^ble 
article, it does not take high rank as a food, from the 
fact of its containing the exceedingly large amount of 
from 87 to 92 per cent, of water. In England, turnips 
are one of the most important of field crops, being the 
forage plant most generally relied upon. The Swedish 
turnip, or Ruta-baga is a distinct variet}^, having an elon- 
gated root. There are also many sub-varieties both of 
these and of fiat turnips. The varieties most commonly 
grown are the White Dutch, Yellow Aberdeen, Laiug's 
and Improved American ruta-baga. 



270 VERMICELLI VINEGAR. 

Termicelli (see Macaroni) . 

Vinegar, the common name applied to a dilute and 
somewhat impure solution of acetic acid used for domestic 
purposes. Acetic is the most common of the vegetable 
acids, occuring in the juices of ver}^ many plants. It is 
composed of carbon, ox^^gen and hydrogen, its chemical 
formula being CaHiOa. It is formed in the destructive 
distillation of wood, but the great source of it is from the 
oxidation of dilute solutions of alcohol. One part of al- 
cohol and two parts ox3^gen foiTQ one part acetic acid and 
one part water, which may be expressed in chemical for- 
mulae thus : Alcohol, C2H60,+20=Acetic acid, C2H4O2 
-f-H^O. The oxidation of alcohohc solutions will not, 
however, take place from the simple presence of the oxy- 
gen of the air, but requires that some carrier for the oxy- 
gen, which shall jdeld the gas in a more potent form, shall 
be present. Spongy platinum and other similar substan- 
ces will serve this purpose, but the more common agent 
is a species of fungoid plant, (Mycodermi aceti) which is 
commonl}^ known as mother of vinegar. Its action is en- 
tirely similar to that of the yeast plant in the process of 
fermentation, it serving simply to take oxygen from the 
air and convey it to the alcohol in a condition such that 
its union with the alcohol may take place. 

Vinegar in the United States is made principally from 
cider, although whiskey and other alcohohc liquors are 
also used to some extent, and in maple sugar making dis- 
tricts large amounts are produced from the last sap of the 
season, which is of poor quality for sugar, and is conse- 
quently boiled down to a proper consistency and convert- 
ed into vinegar. In Germany and France almost all the 



VINEGAR. 271 

vinegar used is made from the inferior grades of wine ; in 
England infusions of malt and soured beers are very gen- 
erally made use of for the purpose. The flavor and qual- 
it}^ of the vinegar depend to a considerable degree upon 
the material from which it is made, chiefly upon account 
of the presence, in varjdng quantities, of acetic and other 
ethers, together with small quantities of other compounds 
pecuhar to the source from which it is derived. Wine 
vinegar is thus white or red, according to the color of the 
wine. Cider vinegar, made from sound and ripe sweet 
apples, by a good process, and without adulterations, is, 
without doubt, the most generally agreeable variety that 
is in use. 

Wine, cider, and other alcoholic liquids may be con- 
verted into vinegar by simply adding to them a small 
quantity of vinegar or mother and allowing them to stand 
in casks in the sun in summer or in a warm place in win- 
ter where the temperature is kept at 75° F., or higher. 
The conversion may even take place without the addition 
of any mother or vinegar, but as the process is one of 
oxidation the presence of air is necessary and the process 
in casks must be slow because of the limited amount of 
air which can come in contact with the liquid. Vinegar 
is now mostly made by what is known as the quick or 
German process^ which was introduced by Schiitzenbach 
in 1823, and consists essentially in exposing a large sur- 
face of the liquids at an elevated temperature to a con- 
stant current of air. The process is conducted in a tall 
cask or vat having a perforated false bottom, about a foot 
above the line bottom. Above this false bottom the vat 
is filled with beech shavings, which have been soured by 



272 YTN^EGAH. 

soaking in warm vinegar for twenty-four hours, to within 
six or eight inches of the toi3, where a false top perforated 
with numerous small holes is placed. This false top is 
covered with cotton batting, and bits of it are drawn 
through the small holes in it, and the hquid is poured by a 
small continuous stream upon the cotton, from Avhich it 
trickles slowty downward upon the shapings. A number 
of air holes about a half inch in diameter are bored in 
the sides of the vat just below the false bottom and as 
the oxidation takes place among the shavings the tem- 
perature is considerabl}' raised which causes the air to 
rise and escape through glass tubes set for the purpose 
into the false cover whilst more air continually comes in 
by the the au' holes below to take its place. If the temper- 
ature of the room is 75° or 80° F., the temperature inside 
the vat will rise to 95° or 100,° which will cause a con- 
stant circulation of air among the shavings, and, there 
being so large a surface of liquid exposed to its action, 
it will be converted into vinegar by being passed through 
two or three such vats. As the -siinegar flows down and 
accumulates between the false and true bottoms, it is 
drawn off by means of stop cocks, and transferred to 
casks. Aside from the articles above mentioned, from 
which the better qualities of vinegar are made, a great 
variety of refuse articles, washings of sugar and molasses 
hogsheads, beer and similar hquids which have become 
sour, and in fact, almost ever3i:hing which contains fer- 
mented hquor or a fermentable substance, is employed 
in the manufacture of this article. 

From the high price of acetic acid, vinegar is often 
adulterated with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acids, and in 



VINEGAR. 273 

some cases an article has been sold as vinegar in wMcli 
not a trace of acetic acid was to be found, the sour ele- 
ment being one of the acids named, and flavor being 
given by the addition of ether, alum, red pepper, mus- 
tard, etc. Such an article is exceedingly injurious if 
taken into the stomach. Vinegar should contain from 
three to five or more per cent, of acetic acid, and no other 
acid should be present unless it be one derived from the 
fruit from which the vinegar is made. The specific grav- 
ity is sometimes used as a test of strength, but is not a 
good one, owing to the presence of other substances 
which affect it. The amount of acetic present is best 
learned by first testing for other acids and precipitating 
them, if present, and then finding the amount of a stand- 
ard alkahne solution needed to neutralize the acetic acid 
present. When no other acid is present, the strength 
may be very closely estimated by tasting, after a little 
practice. 

The presence of sulphuric or muriatic acids is best de- 
tected by boiling the ^dnegar with a little starch, and, 
after the liquid has become entirely cold, adding a solu- 
tion of iodine, when, if the vinegar is jDure, the blue 
iodide of starch will be formed ; but if muriatic or sul- 
phuric acid be present, the starch will be destroj^ed and no 
blue coloration will appear. Free sulphuric acid if pres- 
ent will cause a white precipitate to be formed upon the 
addition of chloride of calcium to the vinegar. Free 
muriatic acid is in the same way indicated hy the forma- 
tion of a white precipitate upon the addition of nitrate of 
silver. Nitric acid is best detected by its forming a yellow 
color when the vinegar is boiled with indigo. The pres- 



274 WALNUT WASHING POWDERS. 

ence of red pepper, mustard, and similar substances is 
most readily detected by boiling the ^dnegar until much 
concentrated, when, if present, they may be detected by 
the taste. 

Walnut, the name apphedto the fruit and trees. of the 
genus Juglans. J. Begia is the English walnut, a native 
of Persia, but probably so called as it was introduced 
from England into this country. The tree is from twenty 
to forty feet high, branched. The fruit is oval, mucronate, 
about two inches long, and one half inch in diameter ; 
the nut is smoothish or somewhat corrugated. This wal- 
nut is gi'own in this country to some extent but requires 
shelter, and the fruit scarcely ever reaches perfection. 
But large quantities are imported and these are highly 
esteemed. The young immature fruit is much used for 
pickling. Our common black walnut is J. nigra ^ a large 
tree from forty to eighty feet high, with spreading branch- 
es, often forming a rounding and rather open top. The 
kernel of the nut is very rich in oil and is esteemed by 
some persons. From the kernel of the Enghsh walnut 
an oil is extracted which is much prized by artists and 
varnish makers. The timber of the black walnut is very 
valuable and is extensively used by cabinet makers. 

Washing Po^Tders, Washing Fluid, Soap Powder, 
preparations for use in the laundiy, designed to lessen 
the labor of washing. The essential elements in all these 
preparations are similar. A washing fluid may be formed 
of certain parts of soda, hme, ammonia, alcohol and water ; 
or of potash, borax, salt, soapwart and water. A wash- 
ing powder maybe the hydrous silicate of soda or potash, 
in dry, fine powder ; or it may consist simpl}' of carbonate 



WHEAT — WHEAT FLOUR. 275 

of soda deprived of its water by heat, under constant 
stirring. Soda-ash and hme may be mixed to render the 
soda caustic and then the whole is boiled in water. Car- 
bonate of soda, or sal-soda is the main ingredient in all 
of these preparations. 

Wheat, (Triticum vulgare) an annual plant belong- 
ing to the grass family. It has been cultivated from 
remotest antiquity, and, though never found in a wild 
state, is supposed to be a native of Asia. Wheat is 
probably the most valuable of all the grain growing 
grasses, and furnishes the food of all civilized men, es- 
pecially in the temperate climes. It is used by being 
ground into flour and baked into bread. Cracked or 
prepared wheat is the grains removed of the outer husk 
or bran and coarsely broken. It retains the gluten of the 
wheat and is boiled and used like oat-meal. It is very 
nutritious and much recommended for invalids. The pro- 
duction of wheat in the United States, for 1876, was 
250,000,000 bushels, of which 194,990,240 bushels were 
necessary for home consumption. Wheaten Grits, or 
Groats, are simply the grains of the wheat removed of 
its outer husk. 

Wheat Flour, the crushed interior of the wheat grain 
after separation from the woody exterior portion or bran. 
The quality of a given sample of flour will depend upon 
the quality of the wheat from which it was made, the 
method of grinding to which it has been subjected, and 
the process and care employed in the separation of the 
bran and different qu alities of flour. For a thorough un- 
derstanding of the last named process it is first necessa- 
ry to know the constitution and structure of the wheat 



276 WHEAT FLOUR. 

grain, and what the process is intended to accomplish, to- 
gether with some of the difficulties lying in the way. The 
wheat grain consists first of two outer, chaff}^ coatings, 
which are easily detached and are composed of woody fi- 
bre and silica ; beneath these are two other coats more 
tenacious and closely adherent to the grain, and com- 
posed almost exclusively of wood}^ fibre. These coats 
being entu^ely indigestible can furnish no nutriment to 
the system, and if it were possible to separate them en- 
tirely from the other parts of the grain they would have 
no yalue. Within these outer coatings there is first a 
la^'er of cells, which are filled with a number of albumi- 
noid substances, the most important of which is gluten, 
together with a number of mineral salts, chiefl}^ phos- 
phates, of which the most abundant is ijhosphate of po- 
tassa ; the phosphates of soda, lime, magnesia and iron, 
being present in small quantities. Within this covering 
which is known as the gluten coat, the entii'e central por- 
tion of the grain consists almost entirely of starch. Of 
these different constituents of the wheat kernel, starch 
is much the most abundant, making up usually about 70 
per cent, of the entire grain ; of gluten and other albu- 
minoids, there is usually from 12 to 18 per cent., while 
the phosphates constitute but about two per cent, of the 
gi'ain, the remainder being principally woody fibre. The 
phosphates are undoubtedly the most valuable, weight 
for weight, and the gluten next in value of these different 
substances. 

We accordingly see that the more perfectly the outer 
woodj^ coatings can be removed, and at the same time 
the larger the proportion of the gluten coat which can be 



WHEAT FLOUR. 277 

retained in the flour, the better will be its quality. But 
it is evident that this will be a process of much difficulty 
as these coatings are very closely adherent, are both hard 
and firm as compared with the central, starchy portion, 
and consequently are, in grinding, reduced to much the 
same condition, being much coarser than the easily 
crushed starch. 

The process of manufacturing flour generally adopted 
in this country is that known as low milling. The wheat 
is first thoroughly cleaned from other seeds, shrunken 
grain, etc., and is then passed through the smut machine, 
which, by centrifugal force, removes the smut and dust, 
which has accumulated upon the grain, and, at the same 
time removes much of the two outer coatings of the ker- 
nel. It is then conveyed into hoppers, which deliver 
it at a regulated speed to the mill stones, where it is 
ground. The stones in common use, are a kind of burr 
stone obtained from France. They are cut in the form 
of short cylinders and placed one above the other, having 
the two surfaces which are nearly in contact ground in 
grooves, in a peculiar manner, the general tendency of 
them being to run from the center to the circumference. 
The adjustment of the distance between the stones is a 
matter requiring care and experience, for, upon it the 
quality of the flour much depends. If too far apart the 
flour is not sufficiently finely ground, and the separation 
of the bran is difficult ; if, on the other hand, the}^ be 
brought too near together, the flour suflers from too great 
friction, and is liable to become so much heated as to 
soften the gluten. 

The flour is conveyed from the stones to the bolting 



278 WHEAT FLOUR. 

apparatus for the separation of the bran and the various 
grades of flour. The bolting apparatus is of different 
character and complexity in different mills, some making 
as many as ten or eleven grades of floui' besides the bran, 
whilst others separate only into flour, middlings or cannel, 
and bran. The bolt consists essentially of a long cyhn- 
drical frame covered with a kind of cloth made for the 
purpose. The frame being placed in a horizontal position 
is made to revolve about a central axis while the flour is 
conveyed into its interior. The middhngs as obtained 
from the bolts consist of coarse, giitty flour and fine 
bran. At some mills the bran is separated from them by 
passing over a vibrating, gently inclined sieve, the holes 
in which are sufficientlj' large to allow all to pass through, 
but by a constant current of air blown up from beneath, 
the bran is prevented from passing through. By a similar 
process, together with a variety of quahties of bolting 
cloth, the numerous grades of flour produced in some 
mills is obtained. 

The celebrated new process flour is obtained by slow 
grinding, thus giving a coarse product, the separation of 
which is effected by the air current, in connection with 
bolts and sieves. The middlings being then re-ground 
produce a flour rich in gluten and commanding the highest 
prices. 

Self raising flour is made by thoroughlj^ mixing with 
flour a quantity of bicarbonate of soda and tartartic acid 
or cream of tartar. When such flour is moistened and 
made into dough the tartartic acid acts upon the soda, 
setting free its carbonic acid, which causes the rising of 
the bread. 



WHEAT FLOUR. 279 

Flour is often adulterated by the addition of potato 
starch, white corn flour, rice flour, plaster of Paris, chalk, 
alum, sulphate of copper, etc. Such adulterations are 
made in a perfectly conscienceless manner by many of 
the bakers in our large cities. Alum is used to cause 
the flour to take up a larger amount of water and thus 
add to the weight of the bread made from it ; potato 
starch serves the same purpose, and at the same time, 
adds cheaply to the weight of the flour. Sulphate of copper 
is used to give greater whiteness to the bread, whilst 
corn flour, chalk, plaster of Paris, and other things are 
used because cheaper, weight for weight, than wheat flour. 
When in flour these adulterations are usually easily de- 
tected ; but after being baked into bread thej^ are not so 
easily recognized, except by the quality of the bread. 

Rice flour, potato starch, and corn flour, when present, 
may be easily detected before baking, with the micro- 
scope, from the difference in form of the starch granules. 
Plaster of Paris forms an insoluble residue when the flour 
or bread is washed in water. Sulphate of copper reveals 
itfe presence by the formation of a blue color when a little 
prussiate of potash is placed upon the moistened bread 
or flour, and in a similar manner the presence of alum 
is shown by a claret red coloration, when a solution of 
logwood is used in the same way. As all of the mineral 
adulterants used are heavier than chloroform, whilst 
flour is lighter, and noUe of them dissolve in this ma- 
terial, their presence may be easily detected b}^ placing a 
small quantity of flour in a test tube, adding chloroform 
and shaking thoroughl}^, and allowing to stand at rest 
for some time, when, if mineral matters arc present they 



280 WHISKEY. 

mil settle to the bottom of the tube, whilst the flour will 
float upon the chloroform. 

Whiskey, a spirit distilled fi-om grain. In Great Brit- 
ain it is distilled largely from barley ; in this country In- 
dian corn, rye and barley are all used. Whiskey may 
also be distilled from potatoes or turnips. Whiskey gen- 
erally contains about 50 per cent, of alcohol. Eng- 
land, Scotland and Ireland produce the most whiskey. 
In the United States the principal manufactories are in 
Ilhnois, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, (Bourbon whiskey) 
Pennsylvania and New York. Bourbon whiskey is pre- 
pared from a mixture of Indian corn and small gTain, 
with about 10 per cent, of malt. Monongahela whiskey is 
made entirely from r^^e, mixed with 10 per cent, of malt. 

The two operations in the manufacture of whiskey are 
the formation of the vinous mash and the distillation 
of the alcohol. The mash is prepared by grinding the 
grain with some malt, and maldng an infusion in the 
mash tub with hot water, which is constantly stuTed ; 
the wort is then drawn ofi" and water added to extract the 
soluble matter of the grain. The mash is then allowed 
to ferment, and, sugar being formed from the starch, 
it is converted into alcohol by the fermentation. When 
it arrives at a proper stage it is distilled, and the alcohol 
separated from the other substances. 

A large proportion of the whiskey used in this country 
is artificially prepared from the^iw products of malt, or 
potato spirits, and reducing with water and adding cer- 
tain substances to give the desu'ed flavor ; creosote be- 
ing added to give whiskey flavor. Pm-e whiskey, 
when newly prepared, is nearly colorless, but when pre- 



WHITE FISH WHITING. 281 

served in casks acquires a brownish color. Whiskey is 
lai-gely consumed as a beverage, and is also the principal 
source for the manufacture of brandy. In 1875 over 
61,000,000 gallons of distilled spirits were manufactured 
in this country, of which over 130,000 gallons were ex- 
ported. The present revenue tax on proof spirit is nine- 
ty cents a gallon. 

White Eisll, {Caregonus alhus) a fresh water fish, 
belonging to the Salmon family, found almost exclusively 
In the Great Lakes of North America. It is usually 
from sixteen to twenty inches in length, but varies much 
in size with the locality, in some places averaging no 
more than one and a half pounds in weight, whilst in oth- 
er locahties the average weight is four or five pounds, 
and it occasionally reaches a much greater size, even as 
high as twenty pounds in weight. It is bluish gray in 
color above, and white below. In form it much resem- 
bles the salmon, but is somewhat thicker, especially at 
the tail. 

It is usualty found in rather deep water, although ap- 
proaching shoal water at times. It is taken in pound 
and gill nets, and in seines, but will not usually take the 
hook. It is the most important product of the great 
lake fisheries, the annual catch being estimated at 15, 
000,000 pounds, and reaching in value nearly $1,000,000. 
Great quantities are shipped and consumed while fresh, 
throughout the Western States, whilst others are salted 
and packed in kits and barrels for the market. 

Whiting. The true whiting is a European fish, be- 
longing to the Cod family and genus Merlangus, It is 
noted for the excellence of its flesh, which is more highly 



282 wiKE. 

esteemed than tliat of any other member of the famil}^. 
It is of a dark, ahnost black color above, and gTa^ish 
beneath, has an average length of about fifteen inches, 
and weighs from one to thi'ee pounds. It is taken in 
considerable quantities in the seas of Xorthern Europe. 
The American Hake, and perhaps other members of the 
genus, Merlucius^ are known in this countiy by the name 
of whitiDg, the one to which the name is more commonlj^ 
applied {M. alhidiis) being from one to thi^ee feet in 
length, of reddish brown color aboA^e, and soiled white 
below. 

Wine, the fermented juice of the gi'ape. It should, 
therefore, contain the same elements that are found in the 
grape juice, subject to the changes of fermentation, and 
the effect of age and treatment. In the must, or gi-ape 
juice, we find grape sugar ^ gum and dextrine, vegetable 
acids, such as malic, citric, and tartaric; albuminoids, 
tannin, coloring matter ; volatile aroma, and ash ingredi- 
ents. Of these, grape sugar is the most important, rang- 
ing froin thirteen to thirt}' per cent, of the must. In the 
fermented juice or wine, are alwaj's found alcohol, grape 
sugar or glucose, bitartrate and malate of potash, tar- 
trate of lime, chloride of sodium, tannin, various essen- 
tial oils wliich give flavor, and ethers which give 
'' bouquet" or aroma to the wine. The process of wine 
making varies in its details, in different countries, and 
CA^en in different districts of the same countr^^ In France 
and Germany the gTapes gathered during the da3^ are 
generally- pressed at night, and the juice at once set 
aside for fermentation. 

The ripest and choicest gTapes are set aside for the 



WINE. 283 

finest quality of wine. The juice having been placed in 
the vat, produces a froth upon the surface during the 
com^se of the night, which is skimmed off and the process 
renewed with a second or third layer of froth. After 
the process of fermentation has fully set in, the froth all 
rises to the surface and is rapidly skimmed off, when the 
clear liquor is transferred to barrels, and set away to 
complete the process, and allowed to ripen. During the 
winter the wine is again racked off, and separated from 
the lees, by which further fermentation is avoided. In 
some wines this racking process is continued a number 
of tunes. When sparkhng wines are made from black 
gTapes, they are gently pressed so as not to squeeze out 
the coloring matter of the skin, and the residue is used in 
the manufacture of inferior wines. 

In making common wines the grapes are trodden under 
foot, and allowed to ferment in the vat, and run off for 
further fermentation and ripening. When making color- 
ed wine the seeds and skin are crushed along with the 
grape. After the first run has been taken off, a second 
run is made, and the residue is again used in the manu- 
facture of inferior wines, brandy or vinegar. The wine 
thus made varies according to the season, locality and 
age ; but generally each vinej'ard retains its own pe- 
culiarities. The quantity of alcohol in the natural wines 
also varies very much ranging from seven per cent, to 
twenty-three per cent, in the stronger wines. 

Wines are either red or white. Red wines are made 
from black grapes, fermented with their skins ; and 
white wines are made either from the juice of 
white grapes, or from the juice of black grapes fer- 



284 WINE. 

mented without their skins. As to quality they are 
designated as spii'ituous, sweet, dr^^, sparkling, still, 
rough, or acidulous. Sjnrituous wines are made from 
the juice that contains a large proportion of sugar, and 
enough of the yeast principle to convert the sugar into 
alcohol, when the excess of the latter arrests fermenta- 
tion. Siveet wines are formed when the sugar is present 
in large proportions, and but httle of the j^east principle, 
b}" which the production of alcohol is less, and more, 
proportionatel}^, of the sugar remains. 

Di-y wines are produced when the sugar and yeast 
principle are present in considerable amount, and in the 
proportion for mutual decomposition, when the wine will 
be strong bodied and sound without any sweetness or 
acidit}^ Light wines are made from gi'apes which con- 
tain only a small amount of saccharine matter, and there- 
fore only a small quantity is formed. Sparkling wines 
are the result of bottling before fermentation is fully 
completed, and, the x^rocess proceeding slowh' in the bot- 
tles, carbohc acid 'gas is generated, and the wine be- 
coming impregnated with it, becomes effervescing and 
sparkhng. 

Rough or Astringent wines owe then- flavor to the 
presence of tannin, derived fi:om the husk of the gi'ape. 
Acidulous tvines are those containing carbonic acid, or 
an unusual proportion of tartar. 

Wines of France. The principal wines of France 
are Champagne, Bui'gundy, Bordeaux, Ehone, of each 
of which there are several varieties. Champagne 
wines are of two kinds, the white and the red, and 
these are again distinguished as "stiU" and "spark- 



WINE. 285 

ling." The cliampagnes are bottled wines, and 
when first bottled are placed on frames with the neck 
down. The lees are thus collected in the neck of the 
bottle, and after some time the bottle is uncorked and 
the neck emptied ; it is then re-filled from another bottle 
and set away for the required age. Champagne is large- 
ly imitated, by forcing into sweetened still wines, or 
cider, such gas as is used in the preparation of soda 
water. Gas-generating powders are also added to bot- 
tled wine. 

The Burgundy wines of the best quality are supposed 
to be the finest and most delicate red wines in the world, 
full of rich perfume, of exquisite bouquet, and fine purple 
color. The}^ contain from fourteen to fifteen per cent, of 
alcohol. Bordeaux wines, known as claret, are pro- 
duced on the banks of the Gironde, in the district of 
Bordelais. The best of the wines are of fine color and 
delicate flavor, light, less warm than Burgundy, with a 
violet perfume and rich purple hue. The varieties of 
claret wine are very numerous. The best wines of the 
Rhone, are those of Lyonnais, La Drome, Ardeche, Garel 
and Herault. Numerous varieties of wine are made in 
each of these localities, both red and white. The white 
wine of the Hermitage is said to be the first white wine 
of France, and will keep for a hundred 3^ears. 

Wines of Spain. Sherry is the name by which the 
wines of Spain are most familiarly known. True Sherry 
is made in the vicinity of Xeres, about twenty-one miles 
north of Cadiz, it being shipped from the latter place ; 
but there are man}^ other wines of Spain shipped abroad 
under the same name. Sherry is not a " natural wine," 



286 WINE. 

but is fonnecl by mixing different varieties. Malaga 
wines are similar to sberrj^, but inferior in flavor, and 
retain a sweet taste till they are two jesiis old. Oporto 
or Port wine, is from Portugal, and is essentially a dry 
wine, mixed to suit the Enghsh market. Among the 
best wines from Germany are those produced on the 
Rhine and the Moselle. They are generally drier and 
more aromatic than the French, of perfect fermentation, 
with a slightl}^ acid flavor. Hochheim, Marcobrienn, 
Rauenthal, Johannisberg and Steinberg well represent 
the difi'erent classes. 

Madeira, is from the island of that name, is luscious 
and rich, with a pungent, aromatic, and nutty, bitter- 
sweet flavor. It is not considered to have reached matu- 
rity till it has been ten years in the wood, and twice that 
time in the bottle. Of American mnes those of Califor- 
nia bid fair to rival those of the old world, and judicious 
selection of the grape and improved treatment will at- 
tain the desired result. In some portions of the eastern 
United States wine is made from the Catawba grape, but, 
owing to the large proportion of malic acid, it is of infe- 
rior quality. From Hungary, a wine is exported of su- 
perior qualit}^, known as Tokay. For the year ending 
June 30, 1875, there were imported into the United States, 
6,731,593 gallons of wine in casks, and 401,849 dozen 
bottles of wine, representing a total value of $5,551,274. 
The total production of wine in the United States, ac- 
cording to the Census of 1870, was 3,092,370 gallons, of 
which California has 1,814,656 gallons. Since then the 
production has largely increased, and also the consump- 



YEAST. 287 

tion. Wine is also made from raisins, in Spain, Italy 
and Greece. 

Yeast. In all preparations of yeast the essential ele- 
ment is tlie yeast plant, a microscopical fungus plant. 
It is owing to the presence of this plant that fermentation 
takes place in any material containing sugary matter. 
Fresh yeast may be obtained from breweries, and Ger- 
man, or Compressed yeast, is of great advantage, as it 
may be obtained fresh every day. It was introduced 
from Holland, where it was made at the large distilleries. 
In the distillation of whiskey from r^^e and barley after 
fermentation takes place, and the liquor is drawn off, 
large quantities of yeast remain in the vat, along with 
the undecompos(^d gluten of the barley and rye. From 
this residue, and from the addition of some potato starch, 
after a process of washing and settling, the yeast is ob- 
tained in a comparatively pure state. 

It is then pressed in linen bags and is ready to be sent 
to market, where it appears done up in various forms. 
Placed in a cool place it will keep for several da3^s. 
Yeast cakes and dry hop yeast are made by adding a 
portion of good yeast to rye or wheat flour, vvith the ad- 
dition of a little salt ; when risen it is stirred in with in- >-^>'" ' 
dian meal ; and when again risen it is. rolled out thin, cut ^- 
into small cakes and allowed to dr}^ Hops, or rather 
the extract of hops, is often added ; when made per- 
fectly dry these cakes will keep for six months. The 
yeast plants in these cakes become partially dried, and 
by soaking in warm water they are revived. Hot water 
will scald them and render the yeast germs inactive. 



288 



UNITED STATES MONEY. 



Table of U. 


S. Money. 




10 Mills 


make 


one cent. 


10 Cents 


(( 


" dime, 


10 Dimes 


<( 


" dollar, 


10 Dollar 


s 


" eagle. 




Weight 


Pure 
metal 






Denomination of Coin. 


in troy 


Alloy. 


Legal tender. 




graius. 








Gold. 










Double Eagle, 


516.00 


900 


100 


In all amounts. 


Eaiile, 


258.00 


900 


100 




Half Eagle, 


129.00 


900 


100 


*• 


Three dollar piece, 


77.40 


900 


100* 




Quarter Eagle, 


64.50 


900 


100 




One dollar piece, 


25.80 


900 


100 




Silver. 










Trade dollar, 


420.00 


900 


100 


Xot legal tender 


Dollar, 


412.50 


900 


100 


Full legal tender 


Half dollar. 


192.00 


900 


100 




Quarter dollar, 


96.45 


900 


100 


. 


Dime, 


38.58 


900 


100 




Copper Nickel. 




Nickel. 


Copper 




Five cent piece, 


77.16 


25 


75 


Not exc. 25 cts. 


Three cent piece. 


30.00 


25 


75 


<( (< <( 


Bronze. 




Tin& 
Zinc 


Copper 




One cent piece. 


48.00 


5 


95 


Xot exc. 25 cts. 



MISCELLANEOUS TABLE. 



289 



Miscellaneous Table., 

12 units make 1 dozen. 

12 dozen *' 1 gross. 

12 gross " 1 great gross. 

20 tilings " 1 score. 

24 sheets. " 1 quire of paper. 

20 quires " 1 ream 

2 reams " 1 bundle. 

5 bundles ** 1 bale. 

100 pounds " 1 quintal of fish. 

196 pounds " 1 barrel of flour. 

200 pounds *' 1 barrel of pork or beef. 

100 pounds. " 1 lirkin of butter, 

14 pounds " 1 stone of iron or lead. 

21i stones " 1 pig. 

8 pigs *• 1 fother. 

2 weys (328 lbs.) .... " 1 sack of wool. 
12 sacks (39 cwt., ** Hast. 

3 inches " 1 palm. 

4 inches *' 1 hand. 

9 inches *' 1 span. 

18 inches " 1 cubit. 

22 inches (nearly).... *' 1 sacred cubit. 
3 feet " 1 common pace. 

Pork, full weight, should contain 200 lbs., but the standard 
has been reduced to 190 lbs. ; pickled beef, hams in barrels 
306 and 220 lbs. ; clear sides in bulk, in boxes 500 lbs., and 
in hhds. from 800 to 1000 lbs. 



290 WEIGHTS OF ORIGINAL PACKAGES. 

"Weights of original Packages. 

COFFEE. lbs. 

Brazil, bags, old style 160 

" new style 132 

Domingo, bags 130 

Laguira, " 110 

Maracaibo, " 120 

Ceylon, " 150 

Manila, mats. 70 

Jamaica, packages 200 

Java and Singapore, bags 130 

mats 60 

SUGAR. lbs. 

Cuba, hhds about 1,350 

** boxes 400 

Domestic, hhds 1, 100 

Java, baskets 500 

" bags . . 60 

Manila bags 70 

East India, bags 150 

Brazil, bags 150 

In transportation of freights, actual weight is generally 
given, but when that cannot be done, the following articles 
are estimated as follows : 

Ale and Beer 320 lbs. per bbl. 

"- 170 - h " 

♦* '♦ 100 " ^ " 

Apples, dried 24 " bu. 

green. 56 " 

*' 150 " bbl. 

Barley 48 " bu. 

Beans, white 60 " " 

" ' castor 46 

Beef 320 *' bbl. 

•3ran 20 " bu. 

Bro^fcj^ 40 *' doz. 

Buckwheat 52 " bu. 



WEIGHTS OF ORIGINAL PACKAGES. 291 

Cider 350 " bbl. 

Charcoal... 22 *' bu. 

Clover Seed 60 

Corn 56 

" in ear 70 " , " 

" meal 48 

" " 220 " bbl. 

Eggs 200 

Fish 300 

Flax Seed 56 " bu. 

Flour 200 ** bbl. 

Hemp Seed 44 ♦* bu. 

High Wines 350 ** bbl. 

Hungarian Grass Seed 45 *' bu. 

Lime 200 ** bbl. 

Malt.. 38 *♦ bu. 

Millet 45 

Nails 108 ♦* keg. 

Oats 32 " bu. 

Oil 400 " bbl. 

Onions.... ..57 ' bu. 

Peaches, dried 33 " " 

Pork 320 " bbl. 

Potatoes, common .^.^. 150 ** ** 

60 *' bu. 

sweet 55 

Rye 56 

Salt, fine 56 

''' 300 *• bbl. 

" coarse 850 " bbl. 

" coarse 200 *' sack. 

Timothy seed 45 " h)(. 

Turnips 56 

Vinegar 350 " ' bbl. 

Wheat 60 ** bu. 

Whiskey 350 " bbl. 

One ton weight is 2,000 lbs. 



292 WEIGHTS OF AKTICLES rjf DIFFERENT STATES. 



Table showing the weights of various articles 
in different States. 



^ 



ARTICLES. 






Barley per bush. 

Beans " 

Buckwheat " 

Broom Corn " 

Blue Grass " 

Bran " 

Castor Beans " 

Clover Seed " 

Corn, shelled " 

Corn, on ear '* 

Corn Meal " 

Coarse Salt. '* 

Charcoal '* 

Coke " 

Coal, Stone *' 

Cranberries " 

Dried Apples. ** 

Dried Peaches ** 

Flaxseed •' 

Hemp seed. *' 

Hungarian Grass Seed .. " 

Irish Pota'es, heaping meas. " 

Millet " 

Malt 

Oats ♦' 

Osage Orange *• 

Orchard Grass ** 

Onions. " 

Peas " 

Plastering Hair " 

Rye " 

Red Top Seed 

Sweet Potatoes 

Timothy Seed 

Turnips 

Wheat .... * 



"^ 



48 48 
60 60 
48 52 
46 46 
14 il4 
20 1-. 
46 46 
60 60 
56 56 
70 70 
50 
50 
22 

80 
40 

22 22 

28 33 

56 56 

44 44 

50 48 

60 60 

50 48 

38 .. 

32 35 

33 33 
14 14 
54 57 
60 60 

8 I 8 
56 56 



14 


14; 


56 


56 


45 


45 ^ 


58 


55 , 


60 


60 



, lbs. i lbs. 

48 '48 
60 60 
48 52 
46 46 
il4 114 
i.. 20 
'46 46 
,60 60 
156 56 
|70 70 
. . 148 
156 ;50 
22 22 
40 
80 

22 '22 
!32 33 
'56 56 

,44 144 
148 :48 
60 '60 
;48 150 

'.32 '32 
83 33 

14 il4 
57 57 
;60;60 
i 8 8 
56 '56 
14 114 
56 i56 
45 145 
55 i55 
60 !60 



^i^ 



lbs. lbs. jibs. 

48 '46 48 

60 60 60 

50 52 48 

46 46 46 

14 114 14 





20 


20 


46 '46 46 


60 


60 60 


56 


56 56 


68 


70 


70 


50 


48 


48 


50 


50 


50 


22 


22 


22 


70 


•• 


.. 


22 


22 


22 


33 


33 


28 


56 


56 


56 


144 


44 


44 


48 


48 


48 


160 


60 


60 


j48 


50 


50 


i38 


38 


38 


'33 


32 32 


i33 


33 


33 


14 


14 


14 


57 


57 


57 


60 


60 


60 


8 


8 


8 


56 


56 


56 


14 


14 '14 


56 


56 ,56 


45 


45 46 


55 


55 55 


60 


60 


60 



Beef and Pork per bbl., net 200 lbs. 

rioiir " " .196 " 



FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 293 

White Fish and Trout, " 200 " 

Salt, per barrel 280 " 

Lime, " 220 " 

Hay, well settled, per cubic foot ^ ** 

Corn, on cob, in bin, '* 22 *' 

Corn, shelled, " " 45 " 

Wlieat, " " 48 '* 

Oats, " •* 25i " 

Potatoes, " " 38^ " 

Sand, dry, " 95 " 

Clay, compact " 135 " 

Marble, " 169 " 

Seasoned Beech Wood, per cord 5,616 " 

Seasoned Hickory, " ••••.6,960 " 

Foreign Weights and Measures, 
Reduced to the standard of the United States. 

Aham, in Amsterdam 41 gallons 

Almude, in Portugal 4^ gallons 

Almude, in Madeira ^ 4.68 gs^fens 

Alquiere, in Maderia over U j^ck 

Alquiere, in Portugal If to nearly 1^ pf cks 

Alquiere, in Bahia 1 bi^hel 

Alquiere, in Maranham 14 bushels 

Alquiere, in Rio Janeiro and Pernambuco. . . .1 to 1^ bufehels 

Anna, of rice, in Ceylon 260 2-5 pounds 

Arroba, in Portugal and Brazil 32| pounds 

Arroba, in Spain and Argentine Confederation 25 pojinds 

Arroba, in Spain, (liquid measure) 4 46 gallons 

Arroba, in Havana 3, lOiigallons 

Arroba, in Malaga, of wine. . . v about 4^gallons 

Arsheen, in Russia ■s.-v^ir-? • • •^^•28 inches 

Bahar, in Batavia r...... '^t^ ^h piculs 



Bale, of cinnamon, in Ceylon, net 104| pounds 

Barile, in Naples equals about 11 gallons 

Barde, in Leghorn, of wines 12.0 1 gallons 

Candy, Ceylon b\^ pounds 



294 • FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND IMEASURES. 

Candy, Bombay 560 pounds 

Candy, Bombay (grain) 358 pounds 

Candy,, Bombay (rice) (nearly 25 bushels) 215.93 pounds 

Candy ,*Madras 500 pounds 

Cantar, in Levant contains 44 oakes 118.80 pounds 

Cantar, in Leghorn, of oil 88 pounds 

Cantar, in Malta 171^ pounds 

Cantar, in Naples ..•••• 106 to 196^ pounds 

Cantar, in Sicily 175 to 192^ pounds 

Carro, in Naples, of grain 52^ bushels 

Carro, in Naples, wine 264 gallons 

Catty, of tea, in China 1^ pounds 

Cayang, or Koyang, in Batayia 3.581 pounds 

Chetwert, in Russia 595 bushels 

Fenega, in Spain ^ .►.*]. 575 bushels 

Fenega, Havana 1 . 123 bushels 

Hectolitre, in France 2.84 bushels 

Killog, in France and Netherlands 2.21 pounds 

Last, in Amsterdam, of grain 85^ bushels 

Last, in Bremen, of grain 80 bushels 

Last, in Cadiz, of salt 74 4-5 bushels 

Last, in Dantzic, of grain nearly 93 bushels 

Last, in Flushing, of grain 90^ bushels 

Last, in Hamburgh, of grain 89.64 bushels 

Last, in Lubec, of grain over 91 bushels 

Last, in Portugal, of salt. 70 bushels 

Last, in Rotterdam, of grain 85. 136 bushels 

Last, in Sweden 75 bushels 

Last, in Utrecht, of grain over 59 bushels 

Lispound, in Hamburg 16 pounds 5 ounces 

Lispound, in Holland 18 pounds 4 ounces 

Mark, Holland 9 ounces 

Maud, in Calcutta 75 to 84 pounds 

Maund, Bengal 85.285 pounds 

Maund, Bengal (Factory) 74.667 pounds 

Maund, Bombay 28 pounds 

Maund, Madras 25 poimds 



FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 295 

Mina, in Greece 2.205 ponn(^s 

Mino, in Genoa, of grain 3.43 bushels 

Mount, in France. ?V tojd 

Moy, in Lisbon 24 bl^sliels 

Moy, in Oporto 30 busdiels 

Moy o, in Portugal contains over 23 busnols 

Moke, in Smyrna 23 pounds 

Ohm, Hamburg 38.28 gajlons 

Orna, in Trieste, of wine 14.94 gf^ons 

Orna, of oil « 17 gJllons' 

Oalmo, in Naples is a little over 10 iliches 

Pfund, Austria and Bavaria 1.235 pounds 

Pfund, Bremen 1 .99 ijtends 

Pfund, Denmark. 1. 102 j^ounds 

Pfund, Hamburg 1.068 j^unds 

Pond, Netherlands (metric) 2.205 pounds 

Punt, Russia. 9.028 pounds 

Pecul, in Batavia and Madras 135.68 pounds 

Pecul, in China and Japan 133^ pounds 

Pipe, in Spain, of wine 160 to 164 gallons 

Pood, in Russia is equal to nearly 36 pounds 2 ounces 

Quarter, in England, of grain 8 bushels 

Quintal, in Portugal 89.05 pounds 

Quintal, in Smyrna 139.48 pounds 

Quintal, in Spain 96 pounds 

Quintal, in Turkey 167 pounds 3 ounces 

Rottoli, in Portugal 12 pounds 4 ounces 

Rottoli, in Genoa 24 pounds 

Rottoli, in Leghorn 23 pounds 

Salma, in Sicily, of grain 9.77 bushels 

Salma, in Malta, of grain 8.22 bushels 

Scneffel, in Germany. varies from Ih to nearly 3 bushels 

Shippound, in Hamburg and Denmark 331 pounds 

Shippound, in Holland 368 pounds 4 ounces 

Staro, in Trieste. 2;^ bushels 

Tael, in China U ounces 

Vara, in Rio Janeiro nearly li yards 



.2S@»»- AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT DRY MEASURE. 

Vara, in Spain 100 are equal to 920 yards 

Werst, in Russia 350| feet 

Avoirdupois Weight. 
By this weight all articles in the grocers' trade are 
bought and sold. 
27 11-32 Grains . . 1 Dram, 



16 Drams . 


1 Ounce, 


16 Ounces 


1 Pound, 


25 Pounds . 


1 Quarter, 


4 Quarters or 100 pounds 


1 Hundredweight. 


20 Hundred weight 


. 1 Ton. 



The grain avoirdupois, though never used, is the same as 
the grain in troy weight; 7,000 grains make the avoirdupois 
pound, and 5,760 grains the Troy pound. 

Table of Liquid Measure. 
4 Gills . . 1 Pint, 

2 Pints . . .1 Quart, 

4 Quarts . . 1 Gallon, 

3lh Gallons . . 1 Barrel, 

63 Gallons . . 1 Hogshead, 

2 Hogsheads . . 1 Pipe or Butt, 

2 Pipes . . ITon. 

5 ounces Avoirdupois of water will make one gill. The 
gallon of water should contain exactly 10 pounds of pure 
water at a temperature of 62° F. the barometer being at 30 
inches. 

Table of Dry Measure. 
4 Gills ... 1 Pint, 

2 Pints . . .1 Quart, 

8 Quarts, . . 1 Peck, 

4 Pecks or 32 quarts . 1 Bushel, 
8 Bushels . . 1 Quarter. 

The legal bushel of the United States, is the old Winches- 
ter measure of 2,150.42 cubic inches. The Imperial bushel 
of England is 2,218.142 cubic inches, so that 32 English bush- 
els are about equiyalent to 33 of ours. 



VALUE OF FOKEIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS. 




Value of Foreign G-old and Silver Coins. 



ECUADOK Gold, 

Silver, 

Egypt 



Half Doubloon 7 60 

Quarter Dollar 18 7 

Hundred Plasters 4 97 

Twenty Piasters 96 

Twenty Francs 3 85 

Five Francs 93 2 

Franc 18 5 

Florin 39 5 

Twenty Drachms 3 04 5 

Drachm 16 5 

Guilder 26 2 

Ten Thaler 7 89 

Thaler (fine silver) 69 2 

Thaler (750 finej 68 

Dollar, (100 Centimes) . . 25 7 

Thaler 67 5 

One-sixth Thaler OHO 

Florin, or Gulden 39 5 

Mohur(E. I. Co.) 7 10 

Rupee 44 5 

Ten Thaler. 7 89 

Doubloon (average) 15 53 

Dollar (average) 1 00 7 

Scudo 94 

Ducat 2 26 5 

ten Guilders.... 4 00 7 

Three Guilders 1 20 

Guilder 40 

Twenty-five Cents 09 5 

*♦ Two and a half Guilders. 98 2 

New Gkanada Gold, Doubloon, 21 carat stand. 15 61 

" " including the silver, 15 66 

•• " nine-tenths stand... 15 31 

'* *' including the silver, 15 36 

Silver, Dollar, usual weight . 102 

Dol. or ten Reals, 1851. . . 93 



.Gold, 

silver, 

France Gold, 

Silver, 
(( 

Frankfort Silver, 

Greece Gold, 

Silver, 

Guiana, British . . Silver, 

Hanover Gold, 

Silver, 
(( 

Hayti Silver, 

Hesse Cassel. . „ . . . Silver, 

Hesse Darmstadt Silver, 

HiNDOSTAN Gold, 

Silver, 

Mecklenburg Gold, 

Mexico Gold, 

Silver, 

Naples Silver, 

Netherlands Gold, 

<( 

Silver, 



298 VALUE OF FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS. 



Norway Silver, 

Persia Gold, 

Silver, 

Peru Gold, 

<( 

<( 
Silver, 



Poland Silver, 

Portugal Gold, 

Silver, 

<c 
it 

Prussia Gold, 

Silver, 
<< 

<( 

Rome, Gold, 

Silver, 
(( 

Russia, Gold, 

Silver, 

n 

Sardinia Gold, 

Silver, 

Saxony Gold, 

Silver, 

SiAM Silver, 

Spain, Gold, 

Silver, 

Sweden Silver, 



Rigsdaler 1 05 

Tomann 2 23 

Shaib Koran 21 5 

Doubloon, Lima, to 1833, 15 55 
Cuzco, to 1833.... 15 62 

Cuzco, 1837 15 53 

Dollar, Lima mint 1 00 6 

Dollar, Cuzco 1 00 8 

Hf. Dol. Cuzco, debased. 36 
Hf. Dol. Arequipa " 36 
Half Dollar, Pasco 49 5 

Zloty 11 2 

Half Joe (full weight) ... 8 65 

Crown 5 81 

Cruzado 55 2 

CroAvn of 1000 Reis 1 12 

Half Crown. 56 

Double Frederick 8 00 

Thaler, average . . , . . 68 

One-sixth ThaTer, aver'ge 11 
D'bl Thaler, (3i Gulden) 1 39 

Ten Scudi 10 37 

Scudo 1 00 5 

Teston (3-10 Scudo) 30 

Five Roubles 3 96 7 

Rouble 75 

Ten Zloty 1 13 5 

Thirty Copecs 22 

Twenty Lire 3 84 5 

Five Lire 93 2 

Ten Thaler 7 94 

Ducat 2 26 

Species Thaler 96 

Thaler (XIV. F. M.).... 68 

Tical 58 5 

Pistole (Qr. Doubloon) . . 8 90 5 
Pistareen (4 Reals Vellon)0 19 5 

Species Daler 104 2 

Half Daler 52 



VALUE OF FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS. 299 

Turkey Gold, Hundred Piasters 4 37 4 

" Twenty Piasters (new) • • b2 
Silver, Twenty Piasters (new) . . 82 

Tuscany Gold, Sequin 2 30 

Silver, Lepoldone. 1 05 

Elorin 26 2 

WuRTEMBERG Silver, Gulden, 1824 38 5 

Gulden, 1838, and since.. 39 5 
Dbl. Thaler, (3^ Gulden.) 1 39 

Germany. — The new German Empire has adopted a new 
and uniform system of coinage, which contemplates the grad- 
ual withdrawal of tbai^ftoins of the various States composing 
the FjiQ^B&€iknd the substitution of the new coinage as fol- 
lows; 

A pound of line gold is divided into 130^ pieces, the one- 
tenth part of this gold coin is called a *' Mark," and is sub- 
divided into 100 Pennies, (Pfennige.) 

A Ten Mark piece, the unit of the coinage is equal to 3^ 
South German Thalers, or 3 1-93 Bremen Gold Thalers. Its 
value is $ 2.43. 

Japan. — The new system of coinagefor Japan embraces 
four gold coins valued respectively at $ 20, $ 10, $ 5 and $ 2. 



300 



INTEREST TABLE. 



INTEREST TABLE. 

SIX PER CENT. 



TIME. 


$1 $2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


§7$8 


S9 


$10 $ 100 $1000 


1 day. 
































2 


17 


2 " 
































3 


33 


3 " 































5 


50 


4 *« 





























7 


67 


5 " 



























8 


83 


6 " 


























10 


1 00 


7 " 


























12 


1 17 


8 " 

























13 


1 33 


9 " 























2 


15 


1 50 


10 " 




















2 


2 


17 


1 67 


11 " 




















2 


2 


18 


1 83 


12 ♦♦ 


















2 


2 


2 


20 


2 00 


13 " 
















2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


2 17 


14 " 
















2 


2 


2 


2 


23 


2 33 


15 " 













2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


25 


2 50 


16 *' 













2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


27 


2 67 


17 " 













2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


28 


2 83 


18 *' 











2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


30 


3 00 


19 " 











2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


32 


3 17 


20 " 











2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3 33 


21 " 











2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


35 


8 50 


22 " 











2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


37 


3 67 


23 " 









2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


38 


3 83 


24 ♦♦ 









2 


2 


2 


8 


3 


4 


4 


40 


4 00 


25 " 









2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


42 


4 17 


26 " 









2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


43 


4 33 


27 '« 









2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


45 


4 50 


28 " 









2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


47 


4 67 


29 '♦ 









2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


48 


4 83 


1 mon. 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


50 1 5 00 


2 - 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1 00 j 10 00 


8 " 


2 


3 


5 


6 


8 


9 


11 


12 


14 


15 


1 50 1 15 00 


4 " 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2 00 i 20 00 


5 *' 


3 


5 


8 


10 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


2 50 1 25 00 


6 " 


3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


3 00 i 30 00 


7 " 


4 


7 


11 


14 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


35 


3 50 


35 00 


8 " 


4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4 00 


40 00 


9 " 


5 


9 


14 


18 


23 


27 


32 


36 


41 


45 


4 50 


45 00 


10 " 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


5 00 


50 (-0 


11 " 


6 


11 


17 


22 


28 


33 


39 


44 


50 


55 


5 50 


55 00 


1 year. 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42^ 


48 


54 


60 


6 00 


60 00 



INTEREST TABLE. 



301 









INTEREST TABLE. 














SEVEN PER 


CENT. 










TIME. 


^1 


S2 



$3 



$4 



$5] 



$6 



7$ 



$8 



$9 



$10$ 100 $1000 


1 day. 








2 


19 


2 " 
































4 


39 


3 " 






























6 


58 


4 '* 




























8 


78. 


5 " 



























10 


97 


6 " 

























12 


1 17 


7 " 

























14 


1 36 


8 " 























2 


16 


1 56 


9 " 




















2 


2 


18 


1 75 


10 *' 


















2 


2 


2 


19 


1 94 


11 " 


















2 


2 


2 


21 


2 14 


12 " 
















2 


2 


2 


2 


23 


2 33 


13 " 





1 








2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


25 


2 53 


14 " 





1 








2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


27 


2 72 


15 " 





1 








2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


29 


2 92 


16 " 





1 






2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


31 


3 11 


17 " 





1 






2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3 31 


18 " 





1 






3 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


35 


3 50 


19 " 





1 






2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


37 


3 69 


20 " 





1 




2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


39 


3 89 


21 " 





1 




2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


41 


4 08 


22 " 





1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


43 


4 28 


23 " 





1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


45 


4 47 


24 " 





1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


47 


4 67 


25 " 





1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


49 


4 86 


26 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


51 


5 06 


27 " 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


53 


5 25 


28 '« 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


54 


5 44 


29 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


56 


5 64 


1 mon. 


1 


1 


2 


2 


6 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


58 


5 83 


2 " 


1 


2 


4 


5 


6 


,7 


8 


9 


11 


12 


1 17 


11 67 


3 " 


2 


4 


5 


7 


9 


11 


12 


14 


16 


18 


1 75 


17 50 


4 '* 


2 


5 


7 


9 


12 


14 


16 


19 


21 


23 


2 33 


23 33 


5 " 


3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


20 


23 


26 


29 


2 92 


29 17 


6 " 


4 


7 


11 


14 


18 


21 


25 


28 


S2 


35 


3 50 


35 00 


7 " 


4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


25 


29 


33 


37 


41 


4 08 


40 83 


8 «' 


5 


9 


14 


17 


23 


28 


33 


37 


42 


47 


4 67 


46 67 


9 " 


5 


11 


16 


21 


26 


32 


37 


42 


47 


53 


5 25 


52 50 


10 " 


6 


12 


18 


23 


29 


35 


41 


47 


53 


58 


5 83 


58 33 


11 " 


6 


13 


19 


26 


32 


39 


45 


51 


58 


64 


6 42 


64 17 


1 year. 


7 


14 


21 


28 


35 


42 


49 


56 


03 


70 


7 00 


70 00 



302 



INTEREST TABLES 



EIGHT PER CENT. 



TIME. 


$1 


$2 



$3 



$4 



$5 



$6 
1 


$7 
1 


$8 
1 


$9 
1 


$10 
1 


$100^1000 


4 days. 





9 


89 


8 " 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


18 


1 78 


12 " 





1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


27 


2 67 


16 " 





1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


36 


3 56 


20 " 





1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


44 


4 44 


24 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


53 


5 33 


28 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


62 


6 22 


1 mon. 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


67 


6 67 


2 - 


1 


3 


4 


5 


7 


8 


9 


11 


12 


13 


1 33 


13 33 


3 " 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2 00 


20 00 


4 " 


3 


5 


8 


11 


13 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


2 67 


26 67 


5 " 


3 


7 


10 


13 


17 


20 


23 


27 


30 


33 


3 33 


33 33 


« 6 " 


4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4 00 


40 00 


7 " 


5 


9 


14 


19 


23 


28 


33 


37 


42 


47 


4 67 


46 67 


8 *' 


5 


11 


16 


21 


27 


32 


37 


43 


48 


53 


5 33 


53 33 


9 " 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


6 00 


60 00 


10 '* 


7 


13 


20 


27 


33 


40 


47 


53 


60 


67 


6 67 


66 67 


11 " 


7 


15 


22 


29 


37 


44 


51 


59 


66 


73 


7 33 


73 33 


1 year. 


8 


16 


24 


32 


40 


48 


56 


64 


72- 


80 


8,00 


80 00 



TEN PER CENT. 



TIME. 


$1 



§2 



§3 



$4 



$5 
1 


$6 


S7 
1 


$8 
1 


$9 


$10 


$ 100 


$1000 


4 days. 


1 


1 


11 


1 11 


8 " 








1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


2 22 


12 " 





1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3 33 


16 " 





1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


44 


4 44 


20 " 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


56 


5 56 


24 " 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


67 


6 67 


28 " 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


78 


7 78 


I mon. 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


83 


8 33 


2 " 


2 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


1 67 


16 67 


3 " 


3 


5 


8 


10 


12 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


2 50 


25 00 


4 " 


3 


7 


10 


13 


17 


20 


23 


27 


30 


33 


3 33 


33 83 


5 " 


4 


8 


13 


17 


21 


25 


29 


33 


38 


42 


4 17 


41 67 


6 " 


5 


01 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


5 00 


50 00 


7 " 


6 


12 


18 


23 


29 


35 


41 


47 


53 


58 


5 83 


58 33 


8 " 


7 


13 


20 


27 


33 


40 


47 


53 


60 


67 


6 67 


66 67 


9 " 


8 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


53 


60 


68 


75 


7 50 


75 00 


10 " 


8 


17 


25 


33 


42 


50 


58 


67 


75 


83 


8 33 


83 33 


11 " 


9 


18 


28 


37 


46 


55 


64 


73 


83 


92 


9 17 


91 67 


1 year. 


10 


10 


30 


40 


50 


60 


79 


80 


90 


$1 


$10 


$100 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES — TARE. 



303 



"Weights and Measures, 

AS RECOGNIZED BY THE LAWS OP THE UNITED STATES. 



Bush. Lbs. 

Wheat 60 

Shelled Corn 56 

Corn in the ear 70 

Rye 56 

Oats 32 

Barley 48 

White Beans 62 

Irish Potatoes 60 

Sweet Potatoes 55 

Cas;tor Beans 46 

Clover Seed. 60 

Timothy Seed 45 

Flax Seed 56 

Hemp Seed 40 

MillettSeed 50 

Peas 60 



Bush. Lbs. 

Blue Grass Seed 4 

Buckwheat 52 

Dried Peaches 33 • 

Dried Apples 24 

Onions 57 

Salt 65 

Stone Coal 88 

Malt.. 30 

Bran 20 

Plastering Hair 8 

Turnips .... 55 

Unslacked Lime. 30 

Cornmeal 48 

Fine Salt 55 

Hungarian Grass Seed. 54 

Ground Peas • 20 



Africa. Tenn.- Virginia. 

Peanuts, per bush 32 lbs. 28 lbs, 22 lbs. 

A box 24 by 16 inches, 22 deep, contains 1 barrel. 
A box 16 by 16^ inches, 8 deep, contains 1 bushel. 
A box 8 by 8^ inches, 8 deep, contains 1 peck. 
A box 4 by 4 inches, 4^ deep, contains ^ peck. 
A box 4 by 4 inches, 4-10 deep, contains 1 quart. 

TARE. 
The subject of tares is one of much importance to the re- 
tiil grocer, and he should be allowed tare on goods the same 
as the jobber. Of course where less than an original pack- 
age is bought no tare should be expected. We give the rates 
of tare as prescribed by the government, and also rates as 
given by the wholesale trade in New York City. 

Rates of Tare 

PRESCRIBED BY THE GOVERNMENT. 

Almonds, in bags 2 per cent. 

in bales 2^ 

in frails 8 



304 RATES OF TARE. 

Alum, in casks • 10 per cent. 

Alum coarse or ground, in sacks 2 lbs. per sk. 

Barytes, in sacks 3 per cent. 

Cassia, in mats 9 *' 

Cheese, in casks or tubs • • 10 '* 

Chiccory, in bags 2 " 

Cocoa, in bags 2 " 

" in ceroons 8 ** 

-C!innamon, in bales. 6 ** 

Coflee, Rio, in double bags 2 " 

" in single bags 1 " 

*' all other, actual tare, in single bags. 

Coperas, in casks 10 per cent. 

Currants, in casks, • 10 " 

Hemp, Manila in bales 4 Ibs.pr. bale 

** Hamburg, Leghorn, Trieste, in bales..-.. 5 " 

Indigo in ceroons 10 per cent* 

Melado, in ceroons 11 " 

Nails, in bags 2 " 

" in casks 8 " 

Ochre, dry, in casks 8 , ** 

" in oil, in casks. 12 " 

Paris White, in casks 10 " 

Pepper, in bags 2 ** 

" in double bags 4 ** 

Peruvian bark, in ceroons 10 " . 

Pimento, in bags 2 " 

Raisins, in boxes • 25 " 

" in casks 12 ** 

in half boxes 27 

" in quarter boxes 29 " 

" in frails 4 " 

Rice, in bags 2 " 

Spanish Brown, dry, in casks 10 " 

" in oil, in casks. 12 ** 

Sugar, in bags 2 " 



RATES OF TARE. 305 

Sugar, in bbls 10 per cent. 

" in boxes 14 ** 

** inhhds m " 

in mats 2h 

Salt, alum, coarse or ground, in Sacks, 2 lbs. per sack 

Salt, fine, in sacks .3 " " 

Tea, China or Japan, duty on net invoice weight. 
Tea, all others actual tare. 

Tobacco, leaf, in bales 12 lbs. per bale. 

" ** in bales extra covers 12 lbs. " 

Whiting in casks 10 per cent. 

Rates of tare given by the wholesale dealers in New York 
city. 

Argols — Actual tares. 

Barley, &c,— Come 100 lbs. in keg— all net. 

Bird Seed— 2 per cent. 

Butter— 1 lb. on tubs as soakage ; 2 lbs. on firkins ; pails net 
weight. 

California Honey— In cases, weighing 70 to 75 lbs. 

Caraway Seed— 2 per cent. 

Cheese — Always net or marked tares. 

Chiccory— Casks, marked tares, with 10 per cent, addi- 
tional. 

Citron, and all Peels— 2^ lbs per box. 

Coffees — 1 per cent, on everything except as below. 

Jamaica and St. Domingo, 2 per cent; Savanilla, in double 
bags, and Laguayra, in heavy bags, 2. Costa Rica, in heavy 
bags, 2 per cent. Old Government Java, in bags, 2 per cent. 
Mexican Coffee — In bales, 15 lbs. Mocha Coftee— <| bales, 6 
lbs.: i, 41b: J, 2^ and 3 lb. 

Currants— Bbls. 27 to 29 lbs average; in box, 4 lbs. 

Dates — In frails, 9 per cent. 

Figs- Drums, 10 per cent ; in kegs, 10. Layer figs— box- 
es, 12. 

Hominy— 200 lbs net 

Lentils— 2 per cent. 



806 RATES OF TAKE CREDITS. 

Molasses and Syrups— Always allow i gallon out. 

Nutmegs — Cases and casks, marked tares. 

Nuts — S lbs per bag. 

Prunes — German, 4 lbs per box. French — marked tares. 
Turkishf in casks, marked tares. 

Raisins— Sultana, in boxes, 10 per cent. 
^ Rice — 4 lbs per bag; tierces, 10 per cent. 

Rock Candy — in boxes, market tares. 

Sal Soda — Casks, 7 per cent. 

Soda — English, marked English tares. 

Spices — 2 per cent, except Cinnamon and Cloves. 

Cassia — 9 per cent, on bales and mats ; and 1^ lbs. extra 
for bale ; cases, 17 lbs. 

Cloves — 9 lbs per bale. 

Sugar — Hhds, 12 per cent.; Refined Sugars, always net 
or marked tares. Boxes 15. Mats and bags — 5 per cent. 
Barrels— Demarara, except where marked net, 12 per cent. 

The per cent, for bags and mats with the trade applies 
only to East India sugars. On bags and mats imported from 
other countries the tare is according to agreement betwtjen 
buyer and seller. 

Tapioca — 2 per cent. Sago— 2 per cent. 

Tea — Invoice weight ascertained as folloAVS : — Three to 
four pkgs. are taken from out of each 50 or 60 (usually those 
numbered the same), the tea turned out, and the pkgs. 
weighed ; the average of the three or four is taken as the 
tare of the whole. 

Valencia Raisins — 5 lbs. per box, usually. 

, CREDITS. 

In the buying of goods on time the length of credit varies 
with the articles bought, and with different houses. The 
general custom of wholesale houses may be stated as follows : 

Groceries — Cash in 30 days, except as follows : 

Tea — 4 months net, or 3 per cent, off for cash in 10 days. 

Coffee — Mostly 30 days, except to jobbers, who settle by 
note, which can be readily sold. 



CREDITS. 307 

Raw Sugar— Cash in 7 to 10 days ; discount 2^ per cent. 

Refined Sugar— 30 days net, or ^ per cent, off for cash in 
7 days. 

Spices— 10 to 30 days. 

Rice — First hands pay cash in 10 days ; dealel* sell for 
cash, 10 to 15 and up to 30 days the extreme. 

Foreign* Fruits— Usually 30 days ; to jobbers 60 days for 
note that will sell readily, or one per cent, off for cash. 

Domestic Fruits — 10 to 15 and sometimes 30 days. 

Provisions — Nominally cash in 7 days; generally 20 up to 
30 days the limit; cash in less than 7 days ^ per cent, dis- 
count. 

Butter and Cheese— Cash or 10 days ; dealers pay cash. 
Cheese for export due each week or steamer day. 

Eggs— Cash or 7 days. 

Domestic Liquors— 30 days to 4 months, according to 
grade. Cheap goods are generally sold on close profits and 
will not bear time. 

Imported Brandies — 10 to 30 days ; sometimes months, 
but depends on the price. 

Fine Wines and Liquors— 4 months, except champagnes, 
which are net cash to 30 days. 

Tallow — Cash in 7 days. 

Oils — Most oils are sold at 7 to 10 days net cash; some- 
times 30 days • to out-of-town buyers of quantities of sperm, 
olive and other expensive oils, 90 days to 4 months. 

Tobacco — To export trade cash in 10 days; domestic man- 
ufactured tobacco 10 to 30 days. 

Grain — Cash in 7 days. 

Hops — First hands pay cash ; brewers buy on an average 
at 3 months. 

Wholesale grocers put in many small items on 30 days for 
which they pay cash, and then again they get 60 days on 
some goods for which they get paid in 30 days, so that in 
these respects the two about balance each other. 



INDEX. 



Adulteration 5 

Alcohol 9 

Allien Dried Fruit 9 

Allspice 9 

Almonds 10 

Alum... 11 

Ammonia 11 

Anchovy 12 

Anise-seed 12 

Annatto 12 

Apples 13 

Apricots 14 

Argol 15 

Arrowroot 15 

Artichoke 16 

Asparagus. 19 

Axle Grease 17 

Baking Powder 17 

Banana 18 

Barley, Pearl 19 

Bath Brick 19 

Beans 19 

Beer 20 

Beeswax 21 

Beets 22 

Blackberries 22 

Blacking 22 

Bloaters 23 

Blue Berries Ill 

Bhietish 23 

Blueing 23 

Blue Vitriol 23 

Borax 24 

Borecole 24 

Brandy 25 

Brazil Nuts 25 

Bread 26 

Brimstone 27, 243 

Broccoli 27 

Broma 57 

Broom 27 

Brush 28 

Brussels Sprouts 24 



Buckwheat 29 

Butter 30 

Butter, Artificial 32 

Butternuts 33 

Cabbage 33 

Camphor 33 

Canary Seed 36 

Candles 36 

Candy, see confectionery 75 

Canning 40 

Capers 42 

Caraway seed 43 

Carrots 43 

Cassia 43 

Cassia Buds 43 

Castor Oil 44 

Catsup 45 

Cauliflower 45 

Caviare 45 

Cayenne Pepper 45 

Celery 47 

Ceresin Wax 47 

Chalk 48 

Cheese 48 

Cherries 54 

Chestnuts 54 

Chicory 55 

Chocolate 56 

Cider 57 

Cigars 58 

Cinnamon 60 

Citron 61 

Clams 61 

Clover Seed 62 

Cloves 63 

Cocoa Nut 63 

Cod 64 

Coffee 66 

Coffee Extract 75 

Confectionery 75 

Copperas 78 

Coriander Seed 78 

Crackers 78 



310 



INDEX. 



Cranberry 79 

Craw Fish 80 

Cream of Tartar 81 

Credits 306 

Cucumbers 82 

Currants 82 

Currants, English 83 

Curry Powder 83 

Cusk 84 

Dates 84 

Dandelions 85 

Eels 86 

Eggs 86 

Eggs, Dessicated.... .,,„ 87 

Egg Plant 87 

Epsom Salt 88 

Essences 90 

Extracts 90 

Extracts of Meat 90 

Farina 92 

Figs 92 

Filberts 94 

Flour, see wheat 

Fluid Meat 91 

Gelatine 94 

Gin 95 

Ginger 96 

Glauber's Salt 97 

Glue 97 

Goosberries 98 

Grapes 98 

Grass seed 99 

Green Vitrol-.-. 78 

Gum 99 

Gumbo 99 

Gunpowder 99 

Haddock 103 

Hake 103 

Halibut 103 

Hazel Nuts 104 

Hemp 104 



Herring 105 

Hickory Nuts 106 

Hominy 107 

Honey 107 

Hops 108 

Horse Radish Ill 

Huckleberry Ill 

Indian Corn. 112 

Indigo 117 

Ink 117 

Interest Tables 300 

Jellies 122 

Kale (see Borecole) 24 

Kerosene 123 

Ketchup 45 

Lard 138 

Laurel Leaves 140 

Lead Pencils 140 

Lemons 141 

Lemon Peel , . 143 

Lentils 143 

Lettuce 143 

Licorice 144 

Liquid Rennet 145 

Lobsters 145 

Logwood 147 

Lye 148 

Macaroni 148 

Mace ,...' 149 

Machine Oils 149 

Mackerel 150 

Madder 153 

Malt 154 

Mandioca 154 

Manna 154 

Maple sugar. 154 

Marmalade 156 

Martynias 156 

Match 156 

Melon, Citron 158 

Melon, Musk 159 



INDEX. 



311 



Melon, Water 159 

Milk, Condensed 159 

Miscellaneous Table 289 

Molasses 161 

Mushroom 161 

Mustard 162 

Nutmeg 163 

Nasturtium 165 

Oat Meal 165 

Olive 166 

Onions 168 

Oranges 169 

Orange Peel 170 

Oysters 171 

Oysters, cove 173 

Oyster Plant 173 

Paper 173 

Paraffine 175 

Paris Green 176 

Parsley, 179 

Parsnip 179 

Pea 179 

Peaches 180 

Pea-nuts 181 

Pears 182 

Pecan 182 

Pepper 182 

Pickerel 183 

Pickles 184 

Pie Plant 185 

Pine Apple 185 

Pipes 185 

Plams 186 

Pollock 186 

Pork and Pork Packing. . 186 

Port Wine 193 

Potash 193 

Potatoes 193 

Prunelles 196 

Prunes 195 

Pumpkins 197 

Quince 197 



Radish 197 

Raisins 198 

Rape Seed 199 

Rhubarb 199 

Rice 200 

Rosin 203 

Rum 204 

Sage 244 

Sago 204 

Saleratus 205 

Salmon 205 

Salsify 207 

Salsoda 207 

Salt 207 

Saltpetre 212 

Samp 

Sardines 212 

Sauce 213 

Sauerkraut 213 

Sealing Wax 213 

Sea Moss 214 

Semolino 214 

Shad • 214 

Shadine 215 

Sherry 285 

Shot. 215 

Shrimp 217 

Snuff 217 

Soap 217 

Soap Powder 274 

Soda 221 

Sorrel 223 

Spinach 223 

Sprat 223 

Squash 224 

Starch 224 

Starch Polish 227 

Stove Polish. 227 

Strawberry 227 

Sturgeon .'. 229 

Succory 55 

Succotash 228 

Sugar 228 

Sulphur 243 

Summer Savory 244 

Sweet Herbs 244 



312 



INDEX. 



Sweet Potato 244 

Swiss Chard, (see Beet) 22 

Sword Fish. 245 

Syrup 245 

Table of U. S. Money. ... 288 
" of Avoir. Weight. . 296 

•* Dry Measure 296 

•' Liquid Measure... 296 

Tapioca 251 

Tare 303 

Tartaric Acid . 252 

Tea 253 

Thyme 244 

Tobacco 260 

Tomatoes.. 267 

Tripe. 267 

Trout 268 

Truffles 268 

Tunny Fish. 269 

Turnips 269 

Value of Foreign Gold 
and Silver Coins 297 



Vermicelli 148, 270 

Vinegar 270 

Walnuts. 274 

Washing Powder 274 

Weights of Original Pack- 
ages 290 

Weights of Articles in dif- 
ferent States 292 

Weights and Measures. • . 303 

Wheat 275 

Wheat Flour 275 

Wheat, cracked 275 

Wheaten grits 275 

Whiskey 280 

Whitefish 281 

Whiting 281 

Whortleberry Ill 

Wine ....282 

Yeast 287 






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